Impact of training on people’s employability
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Fixed-term workers
Extent and structure of fixed-term work
Figure 1 illustrated the level of fixed-term work in different EU countries in the third quarter of 2004, based on Eurostat data. The national surveys confirm a different incidence rate of fixed-term contracts across countries (Table 5).
| % | National survey/source* | Year | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Austria | 4.5 | Austrian LFS | 2003 (3rd qr) |
| Czech Republic | 9.1 | LFS | 2004 (4th qr) |
| 17.9 | Measuring Quality of Working life | 2004 | |
| Denmark | 10 | Danish LFS | 2004 (1st qr) |
| Estonia | 23 | WLB | 2002 |
| Finland | 14 | FQWLS | 2003 |
| France | No data available | ||
| Germany | 11.5 | GSOEP | 2003 |
| 11.6 | BIBB/IAB | 1999 | |
| Italy | 7.2 | Istat | 2002 |
| Netherlands | 3.5 | CBS Workforce Survey | 2004 |
| Portugal | 15.1 | INE Employment survey | 2004 |
| Spain | 30.6 | Spanish LFS | 2004 |
| Sweden | 15.2 | Statistics Sweden (taken from Holmlund and Storrie, 2002) | 2002 |
Source: EWCO national reports, 2005; *See Appendix for further details on national surveys
A tendency towards an increase in fixed-term contracts - with some fluctuations - can be observed across the countries.
The Employment in Europe 2004 report describes the relative employment change, by type of employment contract, in the EU15. Table 6 shows that, following a considerable increase in fixed-term employment in the period 1997 to 2000, a fall may be seen in the period 2000 to 2003.
| Relative change in employment between 1997 and 2000 (as % of 1997 employment level) | Relative change in employment between 2000 and 2003 (as % of 2000 employment level) | |
|---|---|---|
| Fixed-term | 18.8 | -2.7 |
| Permanent | 5.5 | 4.4 |
Source: Employment in Europe 2004; Estimates based on LFS, spring results
Gender
In most of the countries, fixed-term contracts concern more women than men. In Portugal, the difference in the incidence of fixed-term contracts between women and men increased from 1.3% to 4% between 1993 and 2002. However, in Austria and Estonia, the rate of men working under a fixed-term contract is higher than that of women.
Age
Across all countries, predominantly the younger age groups are concerned by fixed-term contracts. In Portugal, 80% of fixed-term workers are under 34 years of age. In Germany, 59% are between 15 and 25 years, and 74% are less than 30 years old (Table 7).
| Age groups | % | Survey/Source | Year | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Austria | 15-34 | 58 | Austrian LFS | 2003 (3rd qr) |
| Czech Republic | 20-34 | 45 | LFS | 2004 (4th qr) |
| Estonia | under 30 | 31 | WLB | 2002 |
| Finland | 15-34 | 53 | FQWLS | 2003 |
| Germany | 15-25 ; 15-30 | 59 ; 74 | Microcensus | 2003 |
| Portugal | under 25 ; under 34 | 36 ; 80 | INE Employment survey | 2004 |
| Spain | 16-29 | 52 | Spanish LFS | 2004 |
Source: EWCO national reports, 2005
In the two new Member States, the Czech Republic and Estonia, older workers are also working more often under fixed-term contracts, according to the data from some national surveys.
Qualifications
The data provided in the national reports are rather diverse concerning the level of school and occupational qualifications among fixed-term contract holders, and portray a mixed picture. As a general trend, fixed-term contract holders are more present both in groups with lower basic degrees and with higher degrees. Fixed-term contracts are quite common among highly qualified staff in universities and research institutes.
Occupation and sector
A comparison of the national data is difficult because the data are aggregated very differently. Overall, no clear dominance of sectors or occupations is visible in the data. The distribution differs considerably between the countries and surveys.
Company size
The national data provided reveal a higher rate of fixed-term contract holders in smaller companies, and a lower rate in large companies, compared with permanent contract holders.
Company training initiatives
The national correspondents were asked to provide data:
- on the extent of training provided by the company, and a profile of the workforce receiving such training measures;
- on the duration, form and place of training measures;
- on the purpose and content of training measures;
- on training on health and safety issues.
The European Working Conditions Surveys include the following question: ‘Over the past 12 months, have you undergone training paid for or provided by your employer to improve your skills, or not? If yes, for how many days?’
Throughout the EU25 and in the candidate countries Bulgaria and Romania, those on fixed-term contracts received less training than those on indefinite contracts (Table 8).
| Fixed-term contract | Indefinite contract | |
|---|---|---|
| EU15 | 31 | 35 |
| NMS, Bulgaria and Romania | 23 | 28 |
Source: Paoli and Merllié 2001; Paoli and Parent-Thirion 2003, based on EWCS 2000/1
Some national surveys use questions in line with the questions in the EWCS. Others have completely different questions regarding occupational training.
For example, the German BIBB/IAB survey conducted in 1998/1999 gives detailed information on education and training. However, there was no question on the financing of training, or whether the training took place within the last 12 months.
Table 9 gives an overview of the extent of training, according to contractual status. With the exception of Austria, the data show generally lower rates of participation in training measures for fixed-term contract holders than for permanent workers across the countries and across the surveys.
| % | Survey/Source - Time/financing reference | Year | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Austria | fixed-term: 11.2 ; all gainfully employed: 8.1 | Austrian LFS - participation in training four weeks preceding the survey | 2004 |
| fixed-term: 29.8 ; permanent: 24.2 | LFS special programme lifelong learning - past 12 months | 2003 | |
| Czech Republic | fixed-term: 20.7 ; permanent: 32.4 | Working conditions - past 12 months, provided by employer | 2000 |
| Denmark | no data access | Question in DWECS : Have you within the past 12 months, while being employed at your current workplace, attended courses or in-service training? | |
| Estonia | fixed-term: 26.0 ; permanent: 29.0 | WLB - Within last 12 months | 2002 |
| Finland | fixed-term: 39.0 ; permanent: 56.0 | FQWLS - within past 12 months, provided by employer | 2003 |
| France | fixed-term: 28.5 ; permanent: 46.5 | Formation continue survey - training of at least three hours within past 14 months | 2000 |
| fixed-term: 60.0 ; permanent: 87.0 | Paid for by the employer | ||
| Germany | fixed-term: 35.3 ; permanent: 38.9 | BIBB/IAB - participation in training courses within last five years | 1999 |
| fixed-term: 47.7 ; permanent: 61.9 | GSOEP 2000 module on further training : courses held by employer | 2000 | |
| fixed-term: 52.7 ; permanent: 72.7 | Financial support for training measures by employer | ||
| Netherlands | fixed-term: 34.0 ; permanent: 35.5 | Temporary agency work - participation | 1999 |
| fixed-term: 54.3 ; permanent: 45.9 | Training paid for by the employer | ||
| Portugal | fixed-term: 16.0 ; permanent: 33.4 | Survey on working conditions - training provided by employer | 2000 |
| Spain | fixed-term: 13.9 ; permanent: 26.2 | Survey on life quality in the workplace - training provided by employer | 2003 |
Source: EWCO national reports, 2005
The Finnish Quality of Work Life Surveys and the Spanish Survey on Life Quality in the Workplace provide data on access to training, according to the duration of the fixed-term contract (Table 10). The data clearly illustrate that, the longer the duration of the contract, the higher is the rate of participation in training paid for by the employer. The data for Finland show an increase in training for all clusters of contract duration between 1997 and 2003.
| Duration of contract | % |
|---|---|
| Finland | |
| three months or less | 26 |
| 4-6 months | 34 |
| 7-12 months | 40 |
| over 12 months | 54 |
| Spain | |
| less than one month | 0.0 |
| 1-6 months | 9.0 |
| 7-12 months | 23.0 |
| 13-18 months | 25.1 |
| 19-24 months | 21.4 |
| over 24 months | 36.7 |
Source: Quality of Work Life Survey 2003 (Finland); Survey on Life Quality in the Workplace, 2003 (Spain)
The German BIBB/IAB survey investigates where occupational skills have been attained, besides schools, apprenticeships, university, etc. Table 11 provides data on the attainment of occupational skills after the initial vocational training.
| Attainment of occupational skills | Fixed-term contract | Permanent contract | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Primary source: | |||
| Instruction, training at the current workplace | 29.0 | 20.1 | |
| In-company further training and retraining | 3.6 | 4.1 | |
| External company further training and retraining | 3.4 | 2.8 | |
| Attainment of skills in the work process | 13.2 | 13.8 | |
| Secondary source: | |||
| Instruction, training at the current workplace | 23.5 | 21.9 | |
| In-company further training and retraining | 6.7 | 10.3 | |
| External company further training and retraining | 4.3 | 4.8 | |
| Attainment of skills in the work process | 40.0 | 38.2 |
Source: BIBB/IAB 1998/99 Scientific Use File; own calculations
Data on training initiatives by employers according to structural features is limited in the national reports. Some data was provided on gender and educational attainment level.
Gender
In Finland, more women (60%) than men (51%) in permanent employment receive training provided by the employer in 2003. The contrary is true for fixed-term contract holders. In this group, 41% of men and 38% of women have access to training measures.
In contrast, the German BIBB/IAB Survey shows a higher degree of women (35.3%) than men (31.5) on a fixed-term contract participating in training courses. More male (40.7%) than female (38.9%) permanent workers are involved in training.
Educational attainment
The Finnish Quality of Work Life Survey finds that, in 2003, both permanent and fixed-term contract holders with higher levels of education receive more training than those with lower education levels. In all educational categories, permanent workers receive more training than fixed-term workers do.
Duration, type and place of training
Data from the Survey on Life Quality in the Workplace in Spain and from Working Conditions 2000 in the Czech Republic reveal that most of the training measures provided are short and last only one to five days both for employees on fixed-term and on permanent contracts. However, fixed-term contract holders receiving training are more likely to receive such short training measures (Table 12).
| 1-5 days | 6-10 days | 11-20 days | 21 days | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Spain | ||||
| Fixed-term | 56.1 | 17.0 | 14.1 | 12.8 |
| Permanent | 44.0 | 26.4 | 17.4 | 12.2 |
| Czech Republic | ||||
| Fixed-term | 68.4 | 10.5 | - | 21.1 |
| Permanent | 65.5 | 18.5 | 10.0 | 6.0 |
Source: Survey on Life Quality in the Workplace, 2003 (Spain); Working Conditions 2000 (Czech Republic)
The Finnish Quality of Work Life Surveys provide data on the average number of training days. In 2003, the average number of days was 5.9 for permanent and 5.1 for fixed-term contract holders. This is an overall decrease on the 1997 survey, when the corresponding figures were 6.2 for permanent and 5.5 for fixed-term contract holders. Men on fixed-term contracts receive a higher average number of training days (6.7) than do male permanent employees (6.3). The average number of training days for women, at 4.2 days for those on fixed-term contracts and 5.4 for those on permanent contract, is considerably lower than for men.
The German GSOEP Specific module on further training in 2000 reveals that permanent employees receive training measures during working hours more often than employees on fixed-term contracts. This is true both for women and for men. Men in both fixed-term and permanent employment receive more training during working hours than women (Table 13).
| During working hours | Partly | Outside of working hours | No answer | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fixed-term | 55.8 | 13.0 | 28.2 | 3.0 |
| Women | 42.4 | 10.0 | 38.2 | 2.4 |
| Men | 67.3 | 9.5 | 19.6 | 3.5 |
| Permanent | 64.8 | 11.6 | 21.5 | 1.9 |
| Women | 55.7 | 13.3 | 28.7 | 2.3 |
| Men | 72.2 | 10.3 | 16.0 | 1.6 |
Source: GSOEP 2000, Scientific Use File; own calculations
The Spanish Survey on Life Quality in the Workplace 2003 gives a similar picture regarding the provision of training during working hours (Table 14).
| Fixed-term contract | Permanent contract | |
|---|---|---|
| Always | 29.1 | 29.9 |
| Frequently | 11.6 | 14.7 |
| Sometimes | 23.0 | 25.8 |
| Hardly ever | 14.5 | 9.2 |
| Never | 21.8 | 20.5 |
Source: 2003 Survey on Life Quality in the Workplace
The Dutch TAS 2000-2002 surveys present data on participation in internal and external training in the past two years (Table 15).
| Internal training in the past two years | External training in the past two years | |
|---|---|---|
| Fixed-term contract | 34 | 23 |
| Permanent contract | 59 | 48 |
Source: TAS 2000-2002
Purpose and content of training
The German GSOEP 2000 investigated the reasons for work-related training. Some of these are shown in Table 16. Fixed-term contract holders mention more often the aim of becoming acquainted with new subjects, whereas those on permanent contracts have slightly higher percentages with regard to reacquiring professional skills and adjusting to constant changes.
| Reasons | Fixed-term | Permanent |
|---|---|---|
| Reacquire professional skills | 32.5 | 38.8 |
| Women | 35.7 | 40.1 |
| Men | 29.9 | 37.8 |
| Adjust to constant changes | 52.8 | 55.7 |
| Women | 53.6 | 53.7 |
| Men | 52.1 | 57.2 |
| Become acquainted with new subjects | 36.3 | 26.8 |
| Women | 35.3 | 26.3 |
| Men | 37.2 | 27.1 |
Source: GSOEP 2000, Scientific Use File; own calculations
One question in the GSOEP further training module focuses on course attendance in the last three years. A sub-question investigates the reason for this instruction, as shown in Table 17. The purpose concerning adjusting to new demands in the current job is considerably lower among fixed-term contract holders than for permanent workers.
| Purpose of instruction | Fixed-term contract | Permanent contract |
|---|---|---|
| Introduction to a new job | 2.4 | 1.7 |
| To qualify for promotion | 8.4 | 9.0 |
| To adjust to new demands in current job | 12.6 | 24.0 |
Source: GSOEP 2000, Scientific Use File; own calculations
The Dutch national report offers information on the types of training, according to contractual status. The data provide a diverse picture. Equal numbers of permanent employees and fixed-term contract holders participate in training related to job content. Permanent employees receive more training on the use of ICT and customer service skills, and fixed-term employees receive more training on social and managerial skills (Table 18).
| Type of training | Fixed-term contract | Permanent contract |
|---|---|---|
| Job content | 45.7 | 45.9 |
| Use of ICT | 25.7 | 29.5 |
| Social skills | 25.7 | 16.4 |
| Customer service | 14.3 | 18.0 |
| Managerial skills | 17.1 | 9.8 |
| Other | 37.1 | 32.8 |
Source: Dutch report, based on Miedema and Klein Hesslink, 2002
The Spanish Survey on Life Quality in the Workplace 2003 and the further training module of the German GSOEP in 2000 both investigated the usefulness of the training measures and the newly acquired skills in terms of their work (Spain) or for a new job (Germany). Both in Spain and in Germany, a higher percentage of fixed-term than permanent work contract holders found the training ‘useless’ or only ‘useful to a limited extent’. However, the proportions of those who find the training quite or completely useful are similar for both groups in both countries (Table 19).
| Usefulness of training or acquired skills | Fixed-term contract | Permanent contract |
|---|---|---|
| Spain (2003): for their work | ||
| Useless | 2.5 | 1.7 |
| A little useful | 7.5 | 6.9 |
| Average | 7.9 | 8.0 |
| Quite useful | 55.5 | 55.0 |
| Very useful | 26.6 | 28.5 |
| Germany (2000): in a new job | ||
| Not at all useful | 6.9 | 7.6 |
| Only to a limited extent | 27.0 | 25.9 |
| Useful for the most part | 37.4 | 39.7 |
| Completely useful | 27.2 | 25.8 |
| No answer | 1.5 | 1.0 |
Source: 2003 Survey on Life Quality in the Workplace Spain; GSOEP 2000, Scientific Use File (Germany)
According to the Czech Republic’s survey on Measuring the Quality of Working Life 2004, 36.2% of fixed-term, and 55.1% of permanent, contract holders strongly agree or agree that the organisation they currently work for provides good training opportunities for improving skills.
Training on health and safety issues
Estimates from the Spanish Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs on accident data show that having a fixed-term contract increases accident probability by five percentage points. The research found that there is a systematic difference between the accident rates of fixed-term and permanent contract holders that is not just the result of a compositional or a reporting effect. The study was based on a sectoral panel with 32 industrial branches, over 11 years (Guadalupe, 2002).
Due to the short-term nature of their employment or the fact of their being new in the job or company, employees on fixed-term contracts are particularly at risk. For this reason, information on training on workplace health and safety issues provided by the company was specifically included as part of this study.
In the Czech Republic, Section 133 (f) of the Labour Code (Act no. 65/1965 Coll. as amended) obliges employers to ensure that, in particular, employees on a fixed-term contract are sufficiently well-informed and instructed about occupational health and safety (OHS). This information should take the form of acquainting them with risks, with the results of risk assessment, and with measures adopted to prevent such risks, which mainly concern their work and their workplace. Employers are obliged to provide this information and these instructions, particularly when hiring and introducing any changes in working conditions, procedures, resources and technologies. Employers must keep records of training information and instructions, and bear the costs associated with ensuring occupational health and safety.
The German BIBB/IAB survey 1998/99 provides data on OHS training, according to contract status. Some 88.2% of fixed-term contract holders receive OHS training, a slightly higher percentage than for permanent workers (87.3%). The same survey investigates how workers assess the risk of occupational accidents. More fixed-term than permanent workers feel that they are now more exposed to risk (Table 20).
In comparison, as will be discussed later, temporary agency workers receive less OHS training and consider the risk of occupational accidents to be much higher than do fixed-term and permanent workers.
| Fixed-term contract | Permanent contract | |
|---|---|---|
| Training on OHS | 88.2 | 87.2 |
| Assessment of risk of occupational accidents: | ||
| Increased | 10.0 | 7.6 |
| Same | 58.5 | 63.2 |
| Decreased | 7.6 | 7.2 |
| Does not apply | 23.9 | 22.0 |
Source: BIBB/IAB 1998/99 Scientific Use File; own calculations
The Finnish Quality of Work Life Survey provides data on workers’ knowledge of OHS, by contract status. Knowledge of occupational safety regulations and guidelines differs considerably between fixed-term (66%) and permanent (76%) employees, and is greater among women than men.
Newcomers to the job
The Portuguese working conditions survey 2000 reveals that, in the case of employees with less than one year in the company, 13.1% of non-permanent, compared with 33.2% of permanent, employees receive training.
In the Finnish Quality of Work Life Survey, newcomers are defined as persons employed by the same employer for less than 12 months. Newcomers employed with an indefinite contract receive more training than those on fixed-term contracts. This is true for both women and men. The difference increases with the level of education (Table 21). For all groups of newcomers, the proportion of those receiving training increased from 1997 to 2003.
| Fixed-term contract | Permanent contract | Fixed-term contract | Permanent contract | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1997 | 2003 | |||
| Total | 20 | 35 | 28 | 43 |
| Women | 25 | 35 | 28 | 46 |
| Men | 13 | 35 | 29 | 41 |
| Education level: | ||||
| Basic | 11 | 23 | 15 | 16 |
| Upper secondary | 19 | 34 | 24 | 36 |
| Tertiary | 36 | 52 | 45 | 74 |
Source: Finnish report, based on Finnish Quality of Work Life Survey
Data about newcomers is provided in the Danish Work Environment Cohort Study . The survey investigates the level of education of newcomers and the businesses they work in, whether they can use their competence and skills in their work, and to what extent they participate in in-service training.
Data relating to people re-entering the labour market were not provided in any of the national reports.
Job-skills match
The EWCS reveal a gap in the job-skills match between those on fixed-term and indefinite contracts (Table 22).
| Fixed-term contract | Indefinite contract | |
|---|---|---|
| EU15 | 77 | 84 |
| NMS, Bulgaria and Romania | 84 | 91 |
Source: EU15: EWCS 2000 (own calculations); NMS, Bulgaria and Romania: Paoli and Parent-Thirion 2003, based on EWCS 2000/1
Across all countries, the match of skills and job is considerably higher for permanent workers (Table 23).
| Contract status | Demands too high | Match | Demands too low | Source/Year |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Czech Republic: Match: Skills-demand | WC 2000 | |||
| Fixed-term | 8.7 | 82.6 | 8.7 | |
| Permanent | 10.1 | 88.4 | 1.6 | |
| Estonia: Match: Educational level-Job | LFS 2003 | |||
| Fixed-term (under one year) | 72 | |||
| Permanent | 85 | |||
| Finland : Match: duties-present skills | FQWLS 2003 | |||
| Fixed-term | 57 | |||
| Permanent | 60 | |||
| Germany: Match: Skills-demand | BIBB/IAB 1998/99 | |||
| Fixed-term | 4.1 | 82.8 | 13.0 | |
| Permanent | 2.9 | 90.0 | 7.1 | |
| Netherlands: Match: Skills-demand | Work in the information society 2002 | |||
| Fixed-term | 20.8 | 73.8 | 5.4 | |
| Permanent | 9.8 | 80.0 | 10.2 | |
| Spain: Match: education-job requirements | Survey on Life Quality in the Workplace 2003 | |||
| Fixed-term | 0.7 | 66.4 | 31.8 | |
| Permanent | 1.4 | 81.6 | 16.1 |
Source: EWCO national reports, 2005
Data from Finland and Germany provide a gender breakdown (Table 24).
| Contract status | Women | Men | Source/Year |
|---|---|---|---|
| Finland: | FQWLS 2003 | ||
| Fixed-term | 56.0 | 59.0 | |
| Permanent | 59.0 | 61.0 | |
| Germany: | BIBB/IAB 1998/99 | ||
| Fixed-term | 82.6 | 83.1 | |
| Permanent | 89.2 | 90.6 |
Source: EWCO national reports, 2005
The German BIBB/IAB survey investigates the job-skills match with several further variables, such as use of knowledge, opportunities to apply skills, and the extent to which employees carry out tasks they have never been trained in (Table 25).
| Fixed-term contract | Permanent contract | |
|---|---|---|
| Use of knowledge: | ||
| Great deal | 27.1 | 34.9 |
| Quite a lot | 16.8 | 19.6 |
| Certainly some | 16.5 | 18.2 |
| Little | 11.4 | 9.7 |
| Very little | 28.2 | 17.7 |
| Opportunities to apply skills: | ||
| Very satisfied | 17.0 | 20.8 |
| More or less satisfied | 55.0 | 63.6 |
| Rather unsatisfied | 20.3 | 13.0 |
| Very unsatisfied | 7.8 | 2.6 |
| Carrying out tasks not trained for: | ||
| Virtually always | 1.8 | 1.0 |
| Frequently | 6.7 | 5.2 |
| From time to time | 18.8 | 16.3 |
| Rarely | 26.6 | 29.4 |
| Hardly ever | 46.1 | 48.1 |
Source: German report; based on BIBB/IAB survey 1998/99 Scientific Use File; own calculation
Competence and on-the-job skills development
Involvement in the company’s competence development plans
The involvement of workers in competence development plans and discussions in the company impacts on their long-term employability, and can be of more importance than short-term training measures. Being excluded from these aspects of human resources development in companies creates a strategic disadvantage for non-permanent workers.
The Measuring Quality of Working Life Survey 2004 in the Czech Republic offers data on involvement in personnel development initiatives (Table 26). In the case of career planning and providing information and assistance, managers with a permanent contract play a more active role than do managers with a fixed-term contract.
| Strongly agree and agree | Neither | Disagree and strongly disagree | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Manager plays an active role in career planning | |||
| Fixed-term contract | 22.8 | 31.1 | 46.1 |
| Permanent contract | 33.9 | 30.3 | 35.9 |
| Provision of information and assistance to manage one’s career | |||
| Fixed-term contract | 31.6 | 37.7 | 30.7 |
| Permanent contract | 44.4 | 34.0 | 21.6 |
Source: MQWL, 2004
Current job in line with profession and education level
In Portugal, 23.1% of non-permanent workers report that their current job is not in line with their qualifications, in contrast to 18.3% of permanent workers, according to the working conditions survey 2000.
Opportunities to learn new things
The EWCS and some national working conditions surveys (for example, the Danish DWECS ) include questions on whether the job involves learning new things.
In the EU15, between 1995 and 2000, the proportion of employees on fixed-term contracts who had the opportunity to learn new things at work increased from 69% to 73%, while the proportion of those on indefinite contracts decreased from 75% to 72% (Paoli and Merllié, 2001). In 2001, 60% of those on fixed-term, and 67% on indefinite contracts, had such opportunities (Paoli and Parent-Thirion, 2003).
The Dutch TAS 2000-2002 surveys offer data on the relationship between employment status and job content, based on several relevant scales (skill scope job autonomy and cognitive demands). Table 27 shows a higher degree of skill scope, job autonomy, and cognitive demands for permanent employees.
| Fixed-term | Permanent | |
|---|---|---|
| Skill scope (scale) | 61 | 71 |
| 1. work requires competence | 71 | 89 |
| 2. work is varied | 68 | 84 |
| 3. work demands learning new things | 49 | 54 |
| 4. work requires creativity | 68 | 71 |
| 5. opportunities in work to develop competencies | 50 | 59 |
| Job autonomy (scale) | 57 | 74 |
| 1. can decide for oneself | 61 | 78 |
| 2. can decide sequence of tasks | 59 | 76 |
| 3. can decide when to perform tasks | 48 | 68 |
| 4. work method is not prescribed | 61 | 76 |
| 5. able to choose own work method | 58 | 72 |
| Cognitive demands (scale) | 63 | 75 |
| 1. work requires intensive thinking | 53 | 65 |
| 2. have to retain information for a long time | 44 | 56 |
| 3. work requires full concentration | 85 | 92 |
| 4. work requires a lot of attention | 74 | 85 |
| 5. have to keep track of several things | 62 | 78 |
Source: TAS 2000-2002
According to the German BIBB/IAB 1998/99 survey, the work of fixed-term contract holders is more often predetermined in detail, and they are assigned repetitive tasks more often than are permanent employees. With regard to new tasks, the percentages of those who ‘virtually always’, and those who ‘hardly ever’ are faced with new tasks is higher for fixed-term workers (Table 28).
| Virtually always | Frequently | From time to time | Rarely | Hardly ever | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fixed-term | |||||
| Work is predetermined in detail | 19.7 | 20.0 | 16.1 | 22.6 | 21.5 |
| Repetitive tasks | 22.5 | 28.2 | 20.3 | 14.8 | 14.3 |
| New tasks | 8.0 | 24.1 | 27.6 | 21.5 | 18.8 |
| Permanent | |||||
| Work is predetermined in detail | 14.0 | 18.2 | 17.6 | 24.7 | 25.6 |
| Repetitive tasks | 16.5 | 29.2 | 22.7 | 16.6 | 15.0 |
| New tasks | 7.0 | 25.6 | 31.9 | 21.1 | 14.5 |
Source: BIBB/IAB 1998/99 Scientific Use File; own calculations
In Finland, 58% of those on fixed-term and 67% of those on permanent contracts have a say in planning their own work (FQWLS 2003). At 69.6%, a higher proportion of Spanish permanent than fixed-term contract holders (62.4%) always or often carry out different tasks that require varying knowledge and skills (2003 Survey on Life Quality in the Workplace).
In Germany, 45.9% of fixed-term contract holders, compared with 35% of permanent employees, use training periods for a new job to acquire new occupational skills. Special tasks are used by 20% of fixed-term and 23.7% of permanent workers to learn new occupational skills. This latter method of acquiring new skills is used more often by men than women, regardless of contractual status (BIBB/IAB survey 1998/99).
Complex tasks
In the Czech Republic, the job involves complex tasks for 41.8% of fixed-term and 57.5% of permanent contract holders, according to the Working Conditions 2000 survey. Data from the MQWL 2004 reveal that the jobs of 47.5% of fixed-term, compared with 63% of permanent employees, involve creative thinking.
In the Netherlands, the TAS 2000-2002 surveys portray a significantly lower level of cognitive demands for fixed-term contract holders (see Table 27 above).
According to the German BIBB/IAB survey 1998/99, a higher proportion of permanent employees feel that work has become more varied (Table 29).
| Increased | Steady | Decreased | Does not apply | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fixed-term contract | 24.1 | 58.7 | 11.0 | 6.2 |
| Permanent contract | 25.9 | 66.6 | 5.1 | 2.4 |
Source: BIBB/IAB 1998/99 Scientific Use File; own calculations
Task rotation and team work
Work organisation practices such as task rotation, team work or quality circles contribute to competence development of the workforce involved. Data from a number of national surveys show that employees on fixed-term contracts participate to a lesser extent in such processes than do permanent staff members. Table 30 illustrates the disadvantage facing fixed-term contract holders in terms of: involvement in task rotation and team work in the Czech Republic; team work in Finland; and quality circles in Germany.
| Fixed-term contracts | Permanent contracts | |
|---|---|---|
| Czech Republic | ||
| Rotating tasks | 45.7 | 55.4 |
| Team work (all or part of work) | 53.3 | 66.3 |
| Finland | ||
| Working in a permanent work group or team | 58.0 | 61.0 |
| Germany | ||
| Participation in measures such as quality circles | 13.6 | 22.6 |
| Women | 14.0 | 19.6 |
| Men | 13.3 | 24.9 |
Source: WC 2000 (Czech Republic); FQWLS 2003 (Finland); BIBB/IAB 1998/99 (Germany)
Career prospects
Across the Czech Republic, Finland, Germany and Spain, fixed-term contract holders believe they have lower prospects for promotion than permanent workers (Table 31).
| Fixed-term contract | Permanent contract | |
|---|---|---|
| Czech Republic | ||
| Opportunities for career development (strongly agree and agree) | 26.5 | 41.8 |
| Finland | ||
| Good advancement opportunities in current workplace | 10.0 | 10.0 |
| Women | 8.0 | 9.0 |
| Men | 12.0 | 12.0 |
| Germany | ||
| Perception of promotion prospects | ||
| Very satisfied | 5.1 | 7.5 |
| More or less satisfied | 41.0 | 57.2 |
| Rather unsatisfied | 36.0 | 28.1 |
| Very unsatisfied | 17.9 | 7.2 |
| Spain | ||
| Perceived promotion chances if they participate in further education | ||
| Many | 8.8 | 8.5 |
| Quite a lot | 11.9 | 15.7 |
| Some | 16.4 | 18.6 |
| Few | 15.3 | 18.2 |
| None | 47.7 | 38.9 |
Source: WC 2000 (Czech Republic); FQWLS 2003 (Finland); BIBB/IAB 1998/99 (Germany); Survey on Life Quality in the Workplace 2003 (Spain)
The Finnish FQWLS includes the question: ‘What will happen once the current fixed-term contract ends?’ The data differentiate between those who had received training and those who had not (Table 32).
| Fixed-term workers who ... | ||
|---|---|---|
| had received training | had not received training | |
| Fixed-term contract will be renewed | 54 | 42 |
| Permanent contract at current work | 8 | 5 |
| A new job somewhere else | 13 | 11 |
| Become unemployed | 8 | 13 |
| Does not want a new job | 1 | 5 |
| Does not know yet | 16 | 24 |
Source: FQWLS 2003
Prospects for further training
Table 33 summarises the perceived opportunities for further training in the Czech Republic, Finland and Germany. In all surveys, permanent employees have a higher perception of their training prospects than do fixed-term contract holders.
| Fixed-term contract | Permanent contract | |
|---|---|---|
| Czech Republic | ||
| Good opportunities for continuous learning to improve skills (strongly agree and agree) | 38.6 | 49.2 |
| Finland | ||
| Good opportunities for training to improve professional skills | 32.0 | 42.0 |
| Women | 28.0 | 43.0 |
| Men | 29.0 | 41.0 |
| Germany | ||
| Perception of prospects of further training | ||
| Very satisfied | 13.5 | 13.8 |
| More or less satisfied | 45.7 | 56.8 |
| Rather unsatisfied | 28.2 | 23.3 |
| Very unsatisfied | 12.6 | 6.2 |
Source: WC 2000 (Czech Republic); FQWLS 2003 (Finland); BIBB/IAB 1998/99 (Germany)
The Italian report includes data on workers taking the initiative to receive training and filling training needs not linked to the current job (Table 34).
| Fixed-term contract | Permanent contract | |
|---|---|---|
| Yes, my company offers good opportunities | 22.8 | 23.4 |
| Yes, but I have to manage by myself | 34.4 | 38.2 |
| Training needs not linked to current job | 22.5 | 16.9 |
| No opportunities | 17.0 | 18.0 |
| No answer | 3.4 | 3.4 |
Source: Italian report; based on Carrieri, Damiano and Ugolini (eds), 2005; with further elaborations
The Italian report also provides data on the link between the opportunity to use one’s education in the job and job security, as perceived by the workers. Those who feel that their education is very useful are the most confident about job security; perhaps surprisingly, this is the case for 32.5% of fixed-term contract holders and a slightly lower 31.4% of permanent employees (Carrieri, Damiano and Ugolini, 2005).
Training, competence development and employability
National working conditions surveys provide data on training and employability, perceived job security and opportunities to find a new job, threat of dismissal, and the risk of unemployment. Overall, the perception of employment opportunities and job security is more positive among permanent staff.
The MQWL 2004 in the Czech Republic shows that the percentage of employees who feel that they receive training to improve their employability within and outside the company is markedly higher among permanent employees (48%) than fixed-term employees (31%).
In the Italian DS (Democratici di Sinistra) survey, employability is described as the opportunity to find a - more or less - equivalent job. Although the feeling of job security is positively related to company training opportunities for fixed-term workers, the percentage of those employees receiving training who assume they will find a new job within a few weeks is higher for permanent (28.2%) than for fixed-term employees (25.4%) (Carrieri, Damiano and Ugolini, 2005).
According to the German GSOEP 2003, 23.4% of fixed-term contract holders, compared with 16.2% of permanent employees, assume that it is difficult to find a new job. Equally, 23.9% of fixed-term contract holders have more worries about job security compared with 14.8% of those on indefinite contracts.
The MQWL 2004 in the Czech Republic reveals that 48.9% of permanent workers are satisfied with job security, compared with 27.3% of fixed-term workers.
The Finnish FQWLS 2003 investigates the perceived likelihood of getting a new job in relation to level of training received (Table 35).
| Good | Reasonable | Poor | Don’t know | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fixed-term | ||||
| Has received training | 45 | 38 | 16 | 0 |
| Has not received training | 34 | 43 | 22 | 1 |
| Permanent | ||||
| Has received training | 32 | 38 | 29 | 1 |
| Has not received training | 27 | 36 | 37 | 1 |
Source: Finnish report; based on FQWLS 2003
Fixed-term contract holders experience the threat of unemployment more often (56%) if they have not received training than those who participated in training (51%). The corresponding figures for permanent workers, at 18% for those without training and 12% for those with training, are significantly lower.
The German BIBB/IAB 1998/99 survey includes a question to permanent employees with regard to the threat of dismissal, and to fixed-term employees regarding the threat that their contract will not be extended. The differences according to contractual status are remarkable (Table 36).
| Very high | High | Rather low | No threat | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fixed-term contract | 32.6 | 23.6 | 33.4 | 10.4 |
| Permanent contract | 3.1 | 8.8 | 55.5 | 32.5 |
Source: BIBB/IAB 1991/92 and 1998/99 Scientific Use File; own calculations
The same survey reveals that a considerably higher percentage of fixed-term (42%) than permanent (20.6%) workers feel that the risk of becoming unemployed has increased (Table 37).
| Increased | Steady | Decreased | Does not apply | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fixed-term contract | 42.0 | 43.1 | 6.5 | 8.3 |
| Permanent contract | 20.6 | 55.1 | 10.9 | 13.4 |
Source: BIBB/IAB 1998/99 Scientific Use File; own calculations
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