Browse by subject - Gender and work
17 May 2012: Support for disabled persons in the workplace (Romania / Information update)
A survey by Romania’s National Institute of Statistics conducted during the second quarter of 2011 revealed that 30.1% of all disabled persons aged 15–64 who had a job benefited from special services designed to help them do their work. Among these recipients, 74.3% received personal assistance, 9.5% received special equipment or adjustments to regular equipment, and 47.7% said that special working conditions existed or had been created for them at their workplace.
03 May 2012: Rise in age-related discrimination at work (Czech Republic / Information update)
Most of the respondents to the ‘Trends’ survey carried out by the Centre of Empirical Studies (STEM) in April 2011 believed that some groups of people are discriminated against at work. The extent of the problem in the Czech Republic has increased significantly in the last year. Discrimination on the grounds of age was considered to be ‘very frequent’ by almost half of respondents. State of health and motherhood/pregnancy were the next most common reasons for discrimination at work.
03 May 2012: Impact of the informal economy on the labour market (Romania / Information update)
In 2011, Romanian national trade union confederation BNS published a report on the informal economy and its impact on the labour market. It shows that informal employment represents 31.4% of total employment in Romania. The distribution of informal employment by institutional sectors is 75.3% in the households sector, 0.7% in the formal sector and 24.0% in the informal sector. Subsistence rural households account for 96.4% of the household sector’s informal employment.
21 March 2012: Sharp increase in flexible working during the recession (Ireland / Information update)
A new study for the Equality Authority by researchers from the Economic and Social Research Institute on flexible working during the recession found a ‘marked increase’ in flexible working in Ireland in 2009 compared with a study carried out in 2003. In 2009, 30% of employees worked flexible hours including flexitime, 25% worked part time, 12% regularly worked from home and 9% were job-sharing. The study also looked at flexible working arrangements by sector and by gender.
21 March 2012: Factors influencing women’s decision to return to work (Germany / Information update)
In December 2011, the Institute for Employment Research published new findings on female career paths in Germany. Since career breaks have a decisive influence on the gender pay gap and other factors, the report’s authors set out to analyse the differences between women returning to work and those who take up no employment. Improved possibilities to combine family and working life are cited as the most important precondition for the successful return of women to the workforce.
15 March 2012: Working conditions – the dark side of tourism (Austria / Information update)
Austria is renowned for its beautiful landscapes and high-quality tourist infrastructure. However, this is very much in contrast with the quality of work and employment in the tourism industry, which can be seen as the dark side of that favourable image. The sector suffers from low income levels, low wage satisfaction, unfavourable working times, very limited career opportunities, a high level of career breaks and significant use of over-qualified workers.
03 February 2012: Overtime hours decreasing but still high (Spain / Information update)
A report published by the General Workers’ Union (UGT) shows that the average number of hours worked each week by employees in Spain in 2008 was 38.5, compared to 38.4 in 2000. The union also says that 45 million hours of overtime were worked in 2010, almost half of which were unpaid. While the total number of extra hours worked has decreased during the last two years, overtime has actually increased in smaller companies, and its widespread use may be blocking the creation of new jobs.
06 January 2012: Unions’ role in combating workplace discrimination (Malta / Information update)
An EU-funded study examined the role of Maltese trade unions in combating discrimination in the workplace on the grounds of race, disability, religion, sexual orientation and age. The study was based mostly on interviews with three of the largest unions about their policies and practices on anti-discrimination and diversity. The unions were aware of equality issues to a certain extent but did not seem to have specific strategies to combat discrimination in general.
11 November 2011: Immigrant women entrepreneurs (Portugal / Information update)
A recent study by the Commission for Citizenship and Gender Equality analysed the experiences, strategies and profiles of immigrant women entrepreneurs in Portugal from three community groups (Portuguese-speaking African countries, Brazil and Eastern Europe). Most immigrant woman entrepreneurs in Portugal are married and 35–44 years-old. More female immigrant entrepreneurs from all three groups were satisfied with their work–life balance than male ones.
11 November 2011: Gender wage gap: a complex but still manifest reality (Belgium / Information update)
The gender wage gap is still a social reality in Belgium with women earning on average 25% less than men, although much of the gap can be explained by differences in jobs and careers between men and women. Further explanatory detail was realised in the three-year WAGEGAP project by differentiating between composition and remuneration effects. This approach resulted in novel insights, for example, that promotion has a bigger positive effect on wages for women than for men.
01 November 2011: Women occupy less fulfilling jobs than men (France / Information update)
A recent DARES report uses data from a 2006–2007 study on ‘organisational change and computerisation’ to explore difference in perceptions of work and work atmosphere between women and men. Female participants had fewer hierarchical responsibilities and less leeway at work. They also felt less supported at work, were less satisfied by their job and pay, and less confident their work was useful. However, they benefited from more flexible and foreseeable working times.
01 November 2011: Industrial injuries divided by gender (Denmark / Information update)
The latest statistics from the Danish National Board of Industrial Injuries (Arbejdsskadestyrelsen) reveal that reported industrial injuries are divided by gender when it comes to work accidents and occupational diseases. Men and women are exposed to different types of industrial injuries and from within different occupational sectors. In addition, these differences have an effect on the recognition and compensation rate, where the figures also vary by gender.
27 October 2011: Spotlight on women’s position in the labour market (Cyprus / Information update)
A survey on women’s position in the Cypriot labour market found low awareness of laws on equal treatment and motherhood at work. Just over half of all respondents believed female workers were not treated as well as men and two thirds thought female entrepreneurs faced challenges that men do not. Family obligations and lack of childcare were felt to be the biggest barriers to women’s employment and career advancement. However, participants felt the situation could be improved.
14 October 2011: Rise in reported cases of bullying and violence at work (Denmark / Survey data report [ or view as 
size 136 kb])
The fifth Danish Work Environment Cohort Study, carried out in 2010 by the National Research Centre for the Working Environment, revealed both improvements and a decline in conditions for Danish workers. Compared with 2005, there was a significant increase in the number of people experiencing emotional demands and an increase in those reporting being exposed to bullying, violence and threats of violence. However, social support from colleagues and superiors increased. There was a decrease in the number of people exposed to traditional physical demands such as heavy lifting, but an increase in exposure to loud noise, body vibration and solvents.
30 September 2011: Unadjusted gender pay gap rises marginally (Ireland / Information update)
According to figures published by the Central Statistics Office in August 2011, the unadjusted gender pay gap in Ireland was 12.8% in October 2009 compared with 12.4% in October 2008. The National Employment Survey 2008 and 2009 found that, in October 2009, men were more significantly represented in higher earnings brackets than women and a far higher proportion of female employees worked part-time than male employees. The latter partly explains the gender pay gap.
24 August 2011: Gender pay gap narrower than expected (Germany / Information update)
An analysis by the Cologne Institute for Economic Research suggests that the gender pay gap in Germany is narrower than expected. Using 2008 data from the Socio-Economic Panel, the analysts show that the gender pay gap shrinks considerably when other factors such as educational attainment, age, work experience and sector are taken into account, though the pay gap in rural areas is larger than in urban areas. Long periods of parental leave also have an impact on women’s pay.
24 August 2011: Impact of the crisis on women’s work conditions (Poland / Information update)
The economic crisis viewed in a new report from Feminoteka from the perspective of gender illustrates the situation of women on the Polish labour market, which remains relatively worse than men. Women also tend to perform considerably more household duties than men. As a result of the reduction in expenditure on social purposes by households and the state budget, the situation of women has been strongly affected by the crisis both at home as well as on the labour market.
18 August 2011: Entry of young Poles into the labour market in 2009 (Poland / Information update)
The report, ‘Entry of young people into the labour market in Poland in 2009’, published by the Central Statistical Office (GUS) in December 2010 found that those aged 15–34 made up just over a third of the Polish labour force in 2009 and had an employment rate of 54.2%. A majority of young people in Poland acquire their first work experience after completing school education. It was found that approximately half the youth population’s first job matched their qualifications.
18 August 2011: Survey reveals increased precariousness of female employment (Bulgaria / Information update)
A recent survey in Bulgaria by the Agency for Social Surveys and Analyses found that 20% of female respondents worked in the informal economy without any contractual arrangement or social security, and that more than 40% had a second job. The most vulnerable group are young female employees. The feeling of job insecurity is significantly on the increase with 90% of female respondents believing they would be unable to find another job if they lost their current position.
11 August 2011: Management, labour and social gender relations (Portugal / Information update)
An overview on gender in a management and work content in a book published to commemorate the 30th anniversary of Portugal’s Equality Law questions the existence of a specific female leadership style and provides evidence of a tendency for a more and more genderless leadership style. It is concluded that conciliation between work and family life is more difficult for women to achieve than men and represents a significant constraint to women’s professional development.
28 July 2011: Romania: EWCO CAR on Working conditions of nationals with a foreign background (Romania / National Contribution)
Except for the census data collected roughly every ten years, there very few other statistic surveys on employment and working conditions by ethnic groups. The Romanian economy’s international exposure and the advocating for the principles, mechanisms, and institutions specific for the four basic liberties are of a recent date. This explains why foreign investors and workers from other countries are still in modest numbers. In Romania there are several ethnic groups that settled hundreds of years ago in the national territory.The only ethnic group for which were reported some dificulties related to the integration on the labour market is the Roma population.
11 July 2011: Ethnic minorities’ jobs hardest hit by crisis (Bulgaria / Information update)
The economic crisis has had a significantly different impact on people in Bulgaria depending on their age, gender and ethnicity. The Crisis Monitoring Survey, carried out in 2010 by the Open Society Institute and the World Bank, reveals that the crisis affects Turks, Roma and native Bulgarians differently, depending on what jobs they do.. The decisive factors, in terms of the risks among the three ethnic groups, are employment status, legal status and their employment sector.
06 July 2011: Native women work more thanks to migrant women performing domestic tasks (Italy / Information update)
According to a Banca d’Italia paper, a higher incidence of female immigrants who supply domestic tasks has enabled native Italian women, especially those who are highly educated, to spend more time at work despite the continuing unequal gender division of domestic tasks between partners. Use of female immigrants acts as a substitute for child care and social spending at municipal level by ensuring the continuity of the familistic welfare model that characterises Italy.
20 May 2011: Impact of social origin on access to vocational training (Germany / Information update)
A study by the Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training found a significant gap in the experiences of school leavers from migrant and non-migrant backgrounds in accessing Germany’s ‘dual system’ of initial vocational training. Although differences in socioeconomic background have an impact, migrants’ prospects of gaining an in-company training post are lower than those of non-migrants with the same qualifications and socioeconomic background.
20 April 2011: Employment conditions of homeworkers (Bulgaria / Information update)
A survey conducted in 2010 for the Confederation of Independent Trade Unions in Bulgaria examined the homeworking sector which employs more than 500,000 people. Face-to-face interviews with 500 homeworkers confirmed the findings of previous surveys and revealed low pay (mainly at piece rate), long hours and poor working conditions. About 80% of the respondents were women and more than half were aged 50–65; 55% were self-employed and the rest worked under contract.
18 April 2011: Thirty years of education, training and work among women and men (Portugal / Information update)
A study published in a book marking the 30th anniversary of Portugal’s Commission for Equality in Labour and Employment reviews the major trends over the past 30 years in terms of education, training and work among women and men. The analysis reveals a relative devaluation by society in general, and the labour market in particular, of the efforts and commitment of women in acquiring additional qualifications and skills in order to improve their employment prospects.
05 April 2011: The IAB Establishment Panel (Germany / Survey data report [ or view as size 136 kb])
The IAB Establishment Panel is an annual survey of 16,000 establishments in Germany that employ at least one worker who pays social security contributions. The survey, which is run by the Institute for Employment Research (IAB), was launched in western Germany in 1993 and extended to eastern Germany in 1996. It provides representative data and information on various aspects of employment such as employment development, personnel structures, wages, vocational training, working time and industrial relations. Data are made available to researchers via remote access or on-site to those visiting the Federal Employment Agency’s Research Data Centre at IAB.
24 March 2011: Women and men in the Danish labour market (Denmark / Information update)
The latest of the annual reports from the Ministry of Employment, ‘Women and men in the labour market’, published December 2010, reveals that the pay gap between men and women in Denmark has been more or less unchanged for most of the last 20 years. Overall men still earn more than women, but there are now more women who have attended a higher education institution than men. On average men now take more paternity leave, although maternity leave is still much the larger share.
11 March 2011: Needs of first-time parents during their transition to parenthood (Malta / Information update)
A doctoral thesis submitted in 2008 sought to identify potential challenges for the transition of first-time parents in Malta to parenthood. The study found a significant difference in the adjustment to parenthood between the male and female participants. The research also looked at the work–life plan of the first-time mothers and found that, while over half those questioned planned to continue their career, less than a quarter had done so by six months postnatal.
02 March 2011: Equal opportunities policy from a gender perspective in Lithuanian enterprises (Lithuania / Information update)
In 2009, at the request of the United Nations Development Programme in Lithuania, market research company RAIT Ltd conducted a survey analysing the equal opportunities situation in Lithuanian enterprises. The survey showed that women were exposed to the risk of discrimination with regard to different aspects of employment more often than men. It also found that the surveyed enterprises did not have a robust system to ensure equal opportunities for men and women at work.
25 February 2011: Women’s employment advancement in public and political life (Cyprus / Information update)
A 2007 study looked at the working lives of women in key public sector posts in Cyprus, as well as female entrepreneurs and other prominent women. Based on in-depth interviews with a number of such women, the study gives an overview of the position of women in political, economic and social life. Inhibitors to women’s advancement in public life are cited, along with factors that encourage and support women in their efforts to distinguish themselves in their areas of expertise.
25 February 2011: Flexible working time arrangements and gender equality (EU Level / Information update)
A recent EU study looks at the incidence of flexible working time arrangements and their implication for gender equality in 30 European countries. It found wide diversity in the length of working time but an overall increase in its incidence. It also looked at flexibility in the organisation of working time, focusing on flexible schedules, working from home and atypical hours. There were some positive links with gender equality but some potentially more negative aspects.
21 January 2011: 50 years of change in employment (France / Information update)
The French workforce and employment structure has undergone considerable changes in the past 50 years. In the 1960s, the French workforce consisted mainly of low-qualified male workers employed on long-term contracts in large industrial companies, whereas today the composition and structure of the French labour market is more diverse with large numbers of women, more part-time, temporary and self-employed workers, and a shift from blue-collar to white-collar work.
10 January 2011: Job satisfaction in small and medium-sized enterprises (Bulgaria / Information update)
A 2007 survey found relatively high employee satisfaction with different aspects of working conditions in Bulgarian small and medium enterprises. There were differences in employees’ and employers’ assessments, with 75% of employers and 50% of employees assessing different aspects as excellent or very good. Employees expressed high levels of satisfaction with possibilities for flexible working time and using their initiative, being least satisfied with pay and promotion prospects.
23 December 2010: Inequalities continue to blight workplaces despite anti-discrimination legislation (Ireland / Information update)
A new book, ‘Making equality count’, concludes that despite Irish and EU legislation outlawing discrimination, inequalities between groups appear to be an enduring feature of Irish and European societies. Accurately measuring discrimination is a crucial yet challenging task. The book showcases Irish and international research on inequality, and on discrimination as a contributor to that inequality, highlighting advances in the measurement of discrimination.
23 December 2010: Gender and ethnicity the main reasons for workplace discrimination (Denmark / Information update)
The majority of the 64 complaints about discrimination handled by the Danish Board of Equal Treatment in 2009 were related to gender and ethnicity. The board ruled in favour of the complainant in 34 of these cases. The board’s annual report stresses that there are a number of difficulties associated with the handling of discrimination-related cases and that problems in measuring discrimination obscure the overall picture in Denmark as to its severity.
01 November 2010: Gender wage inequality (Sweden / Information update)
A recent doctoral thesis examined the link between the gender composition of occupations and wage differences, testing the theory of devaluation which states that systematic devaluation of women’s work can explain the gender wage gap. Empirical findings confirm that the relation between occupational gender composition and occupational prestige is non-linear, but that women’s pay-off to prestige is lower, mainly due to unequal distribution of family obligations.
19 October 2010: Constitutional Tribunal rules different retirement age for women as non-discriminatory (Poland / Information update)
In response to a request from the Ombudsman, the Polish Constitutional Tribunal ruled on 15 July 2010 that the different statutory retirement age for women (60 years) and men (65 years) in Poland does not contradict the country’s constitutional provisions on gender discrimination. The Tribunal intends to advise parliament to legislate to successively remove the differential, which is generally supported by the trade unions and the public, but not by employer associations.
11 October 2010: Economic crisis slows wage growth (Spain / Information update)
A recent report by the 1st May Foundation shows that the rate of increase in average wages in Spain has experienced a remarkable slowdown in the last two years as a result of the current economic crisis. The report also shows that the wage increases experienced in the period from 2005 to 2008 did not benefit members of the Spanish labour force equally. Wage differences increased between 2005 and 2008, although the wage differential between men and women dropped slightly.
11 October 2010: Glass ceiling effect of working time arrangements (Italy / Information update)
In 2008, Giancarlo Cerruti investigated the impact of changing working time arrangements on employees in a Turin hypermarket since an earlier survey in 1991. More employees now work part time, and both overtime and work at unsocial hours have increased. Women tend to do unskilled or semi-skilled jobs. The combined impact of differences in labour contracts and changing working time arrangements amounted to a striking gender bias in employment and occupational status.
04 October 2010: Checks on efforts to reconcile work and family life (Slovakia / Information update)
In 2009, Slovak labour inspectors carried out checks to find out how family-friendly employers are and how ready they are to meet the needs of families. The inspectors looked at how well employers complied with the law – particularly the provisions of the Labour Code that create preconditions for employment of people with family obligations. The options of flexible working hours and working time arrangements at the request of employees were found to be the most popular.
24 September 2010: Transitions from low-paid employment (Austria / Information update)
According to a recent analysis of employment progression in the private sector in Austria, moving from low-paid employment into more highly paid jobs is uncommon and subject to significant gender differences. This is mainly due to Austria’s highly gender-segregated labour market. Male non-nationals had a slightly higher chance of moving from low-paid employment into higher paid jobs than male nationals; female non-nationals had an even lower chance than female nationals.
17 September 2010: Gender pay differences still widespread in the labour market (Denmark / Information update)
A Danish study that investigated gender pay differences has revealed that the gender gap in wages is not on the brink of closing. Although the gap is partly due to the different employment characteristics of men and women, a significant proportion of the difference is not explainable by factors open to statistical inquiry. In the labour market as a whole, the difference in hourly earnings is 14.2% or 17.7% in favour of men depending on the choice of calculation method.
02 August 2010: New measure to help mothers return part time to the public sector (Hungary / Information update)
Mothers wishing to return to work face many difficulties. Promoting atypical forms of employment is one way of facilitating their reintegration into the labour market. On average, only 4.3% of employees in Hungary worked part time in 2008 compared with 17.6% in the EU27. New legislation seeks to address this low proportion by obliging public sector employers to allow part-time employment for women wishing to return to work before their child is three years of age.
28 July 2010: New survey reveals sharp variation in working conditions across sectors (Ireland / Information update)
A new survey reveals significant variations in working conditions in Ireland according to economic sector and employment characteristics. The survey looks at employer provision of work-related benefits such as pensions, childcare subsidies and medical cover. It also examines accommodation of employee-friendly working, access to workplace training and access to employment rights according to occupation, gender, sector, age group and nationality.
09 July 2010: Migrant women workers receive less pay than men (Italy / Information update)
An investigation by the Italian national social security institute (INPS) found a notable increase during the 2000s in the number of migrants in Italy carrying out domestic work. Although the figures provided only go up to 2004, the INPS report highlights the significant increase in migrant women in the Italian labour market and the various pressures leading to the sometimes much lower pay earned by women migrants in regular employment.
23 June 2010: Case study examines working conditions of women in large retail chains (Poland / Information update)
The KARAT gender equality coalition of organisations and individuals has conducted a case study on working conditions and the observance of workers’ rights among female employees in supermarkets and hypermarkets. The research explored and identified the areas and most frequents forms in which workers’ rights were infringed, as well as looking at labour law in practice. Violations concerning working time and health and safety regulations were reported.
23 June 2010: Stereotypes about gender and work (Greece / Information update)
A research report examines perceptions about typically ‘male’ and ‘female’ occupations in Greece and about the factors hindering women’s professional development. It finds evidence of horizontal and vertical segregation in the labour market. This problem is particularly acute in ‘traditional’ occupations, although it is less apparent in some higher educated professions. State policy and the male-dominated business sector are obstacles to women’s career development.
04 May 2010: Effects of economic crisis on women in labour market (Spain / Information update)
The current economic crisis is having a profound impact from a gender perspective on the traditional Spanish labour market model, as women are currently assuming a more active role in comparison to their male counterparts. The traditional socioeconomic model in the country is being undermined, with changing economic activity rates, female employment proving to be less vulnerable to the crisis and higher unemployment growth among men.
23 April 2010: More measures needed to attract people to teaching (Belgium / Information update)
Teachers are often stereotyped as complaining about their job. Research shows, however, that they are relatively satisfied with their job. Moreover, the number of teachers who quit their job is relatively low. Nevertheless, the education sector has found it difficult to attract new people to the teaching profession. These are among the results of a comprehensive study on the teaching profession, based on focus group interviews and secondary analysis of data.
23 April 2010: Companies checked for gender wage discrimination (Slovakia / Information update)
In 2009, Slovakia’s National Labour Inspectorate started checking companies for compliance with gender equality principles regarding pay for the same work and work of equal value. A report from the labour inspectorate provides information about the results of the checks, which have been carried out in 22 enterprises in all regions of the country. Breaches of gender equality principles do not appear to be widespread in Slovakia but data on the issue are not always available.
23 April 2010: 35-hour week no longer standard of working time (France / Information update)
In 2007, full-time employees reported working 1,680 hours annually over 212 days in their main paid job. The typical working week for these employees is, on average, 39 hours and 24 minutes spread over five days. Even when employed full time, women work significantly less than men. It also appears that working time is longer in the private sector. Furthermore, self-employed workers work an average of 2,560 hours a year over the course of 271 days.
16 April 2010: Comparative analysis of working time in the European Union (TRANS NATIONAL / Comparative analytical report [ or view as size 529 kb])
The number of hours worked every week or year, and the way in which work is organised, are issues of central concern and interest to both employees and employers. In the case of employees, working hours have a direct bearing on standard of living, level of work–life balance and the overall sustainability of working life. For employers, working time is a key element in the calculation of costs, productivity and competitiveness. Working time, and its regulation, is likewise an important policy issue for national governments. This report, covering the 27 Member States of the EU and Norway, focuses on changes in working time and practices relating to the organisation of work over the period 2000-2006.
09 April 2010: New insights into gender inequalities at work (Germany / Information update)
Policies and practices of gender equality promotion at the workplace show insufficient results, according to the findings of a study by the Hans-Boeckler Foundation. The study, published in January 2010, is considered one of the most comprehensive pieces of research on gender gaps at establishment level in Germany to date. It concludes that not only management, but also works councils and trade unions, fall short in promoting gender equality in practice.
31 March 2010: Gender gap in Danish labour market is narrowing (Denmark / Information update)
Over the past decade, there has been an evident trend towards more gender equality in the Danish labour market. Regarding education, labour market participation and, to some degree, managerial positions, part-time working and the uptake of maternity or paternity leave, the gender gap is narrowing. However, differences in pay and occupational patterns of men and women may still be considered striking.
22 March 2010: Gay rights group publish list of gay-friendly employers (United Kingdom / Information update)
Stonewall, a UK gay rights charity, has published its annual list of the UK’s most gay-friendly employers. The 2010 list used data from over 350 organisations to identify employers that are most responsive to the needs of gay employees. The report assessed organisations on a variety of criteria related to the inclusion of gay employees, and identified a series of good practice measures used by employers to promote the inclusion of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgendered employees.
22 March 2010: Differences in corporate family policies between MNC HQ and Czech subsidiary (Czech Republic / Information update)
Companies operating in different countries do not automatically adopt the same approach towards working parents or regarding work–life balance. Case studies carried out at the headquarters of engineering companies in France, Germany and Sweden and in their Czech subsidiaries pointed to differences and identified factors which determine corporate family policies, highlighting the role of cultural and historical impacts, state policy and stakeholders’ behaviour.
12 March 2010: Fathers’ experience of parental leave (Malta / Information update)
A study on ‘Fathers on parental leave’ in Malta, commissioned by the Employment and Training Corporation, carried out research on fathers on leave, employers and decision makers. The study analyses the motivating factors that encouraged 10 Maltese fathers to take parental leave. It also looks at the obstacles that they encountered and how employers dealt with the issue of men taking parental leave. Overall, the practice of men taking parental leave in Malta remains low.
12 March 2010: Positive impact of training on productivity in food industry (Belgium / Information update)
A study published in 2008 uses company-level panel data on training provided by employers in order to estimate its impact on productivity and wages, especially in the food industry. The productivity premium for a trained worker is estimated at 23%, while the wage premium of training is estimated at 12%. The study concludes that, by training its workers, a company can realise an extra added value per worker amounting to €1,385 higher than the cost of the required training.
08 March 2010: Benefits of work–life balance measures in SMEs (Italy / Information update)
The Confederation of Italian Industry has published a report summarising a wide range of work–life balance practices in small and medium-sized enterprises. Contrary to widespread opinion among employers and their representative associations, improvement of work–life balance is not related to company size or to the company’s financial conditions but it is strongly influenced by the employer’s cultural affirmative attitude and the flexibility of labour relations.
08 March 2010: Women and part-time work (Austria / Information update)
An analysis of secondary data on part-time work and women shows that part-time employment is responsible for the increase of female employment in Austria. Women working part time often have a low level of education, which is also reflected in their occupational status. Childcare and caring for elderly people is the main reason for women taking on a part-time job. Concerning income, female part-timers not only earn less an hour than women working full time, but they also earn less than men.
17 February 2010: Workers in utilities sector more exposed to hazardous working conditions (Poland / Information update)
A survey of working conditions, conducted each year by the Central Statistical Office, reports on types of work-related risks and the gender dimension of working conditions. According to the findings, the proportion of employees working in hazardous conditions remained constant over a two-year period, standing at 11.2% in 2008 compared with about 11.3% in 2007. Workers in mining and quarrying appeared to be most at risk of hazardous conditions.
17 February 2010: Female workers more prone to psychological disorders (France / Information update)
In 2006, the French Institute for Health Surveillance set up the Samotrace programme to assess the relations between mental health and work. The first findings show a high level of psychological distress among workers, mainly among women and in certain economic sectors, such as financial services and public administration. The study’s results also reveal high correlations with psychosocial factors at work, such as imbalance in terms of ‘effort-reward’ and over-commitment.
18 January 2010: Parents and family–work conflict (Lithuania / Information update)
A joint research group in Lithuania has carried out a survey analysing parents’ needs for ensuring the welfare of their families. A special emphasis was placed on balancing work and family responsibilities and the problems related therein. The survey found that family–work conflict was strong for 16% of the parents interviewed. Women more often experienced greater pressure than men in juggling work and family responsibilities.
08 January 2010: Positive attitude towards increase in employment of women (Lithuania / Information update)
Within the framework of the National Programme on Equal Opportunities for Women and Men 2005–2009, the Women’s Issues Information Centre carried out an extended survey in 2009 examining the changes in the situation of women and men in all areas of life. The survey focused on changes in attitudes towards women’s labour market participation since 1994. The findings show a dramatic increase in the number of people recognising an equal right to work for women and men.
07 December 2009: Gender discrimination in female-dominated jobs (Italy / Information update)
According to a report from the Italian Vocational Training Development Agency, gender pay gap estimates are lower when differences in job search patterns and job preferences are taken into account. Women search for jobs offering more opportunities for flexible working time even if they are less paid, whereas men pay more attention to the remuneration. Nonetheless, high levels of discrimination may still be found, in particular among women educated to primary or third level.
02 December 2009: Impact of parenthood on careers of young men and women (France / Information update)
According to the ‘Generation 98’ survey findings, the work-life organisation of parents after the birth of children results in a contrasted picture of men’s and women’s professional development, noticeably for less qualified people. Young fathers invest more than young mothers in their professional life: their average income increases with the number of children, while their contribution to housework tends to decline. For young mothers, the reverse is true.
20 November 2009: Working environment shown to play role in early retirement (Denmark / Information update)
A recent study confirms that the working environment plays a substantial role in the take-up of early retirement. The study, which examines the relations between working environment factors and early retirement, also uncovers considerable gender differences regarding the impact of working conditions on early retirement. However, neither the working environment nor other external factors fully explain why people opt for early retirement.
20 November 2009: Gender differences in quality of work and life (Bulgaria / Information update)
A study carried out in the framework of the project ‘QUALITY of life in a changing Europe’ aimed to review gender differences in quality of work and life. The survey findings show that men are in more privileged positions at work, while women are more committed to the company. Gender differences are registered concerning most of the study’s indicators of work quality, including autonomy, job satisfaction, supervisor support, job security and work–life balance.
26 October 2009: Ombudsman presents progress report on equal treatment (Greece / Information update)
The Greek Ombudsman has presented its first annual report on the application and promotion of equal treatment for men and women. The report outlines the various types of complaints recorded by the Ombudsman in 2008 relating to discrimination in the area of employment. It also reveals that maternity and parenthood remain important causes of discrimination of women in the labour market. Several representative case examples are outlined below.
14 October 2009: Women’s access to top jobs at 20-year standstill (Greece / Information update)
The past 20 years have seen a significant improvement in women’s situation in the labour market and in society as a whole, according to a survey by the research company Focus Bari. The increase in working women is associated with a considerable improvement in their educational qualifications. However, women’s share in top-level jobs has remained unchanged since 1998, showing that there is still a long way to go before gender equality will be achieved in the Greek labour market.
25 September 2009: Work-related accidents and risks among migrant workers (Norway / Information update)
Based on data from the immigrant living conditions survey in Norway for 2005–2006, occupational factors important for health and well-being have been examined among immigrants from Asia, Africa, South America and southeast Europe. In general, the incidence of injuries at work as well as exposure to physical, chemical, mechanical and psychosocial strain appear to be higher among immigrant workers in Norway compared with the entire workforce.
21 September 2009: Gender perspective on working conditions in Slovakia (Slovakia / Survey data report [ or view as size 107 kb])
A Slovakian survey on ‘Gender, work and health’ has examined employee opinions and attitudes in relation to working conditions – especially occupational health and safety – from a gender perspective. Gender segregation is still apparent in the workplace. Men are more likely to be offered physically arduous work, whereas such work is considered unsuitable for women. However, women employed in industry often perform monotonous, repetitive tasks, which are also a health risk.
14 September 2009: OECD report finds disparities between EU Member States (EU Level / Information update)
Society at a Glance 2009 is the fifth edition of the biennial compendium of social indicators by the Organisation for Co-operation and Development (OECD). It gives an overview of social trends and policy developments in OECD countries using indicators taken from OECD studies and other sources. The 2009 edition contains a special chapter on ‘Measuring leisure in OECD countries’ discussing the difficulties in defining meaningful and comparable indicators of leisure.
31 August 2009: Work aspirations and experiences of lone mothers (Malta / Information update)
A study carried out by the Employment and Training Corporation shows that lone mothers’ dependency on social benefits is linked to their difficulty in finding a stable job with good working conditions and by their perceived lack of academic qualifications and vocational skills. The study suggests a number of conditions that would enable more lone mothers to work, including flexible work organisation and affordable childcare.
10 July 2009: Back-to-work mothers call for better work–life balance (Germany / Information update)
In 2008, new findings on the situation of mothers returning to work reveal that almost half of all female employees work shorter hours, in low-paid ‘mini-jobs’ or as freelancers. Their careers are disrupted more often than those of men, mostly due to childcare leave. However, women’s views differ on the obstacles to returning to work. While in some cases traditional ideas and values influence views on parenthood, many women call for concrete measures to improve work–life balance.
10 July 2009: Labour market inclusion of transgender persons (Malta / Information update)
A recent study on the inclusion of transgender individuals into the labour market shows that there is a general lack of information and knowledge about transgender persons in Malta. This often gives rise to workplace harassment and discrimination towards them. Many of the transgender respondents in the study had negative experiences at work. However, nearly all employers (97.5%) claimed that they would treat a transgender person equally during an interview.
29 June 2009: Impact of flexible working on work–life conflict and work pressure (Ireland / Information update)
In January 2009, Ireland’s Economic and Social Research Institute published the findings of a study on the impact of four flexible working arrangements – flexitime, part-time hours, homeworking and job sharing – on two key employee outcomes – work pressure and work–life conflict. Using national survey data from 2003, the results show that part-time work and flexitime tend to reduce work pressure and work–life conflict, while homeworking increases both outcomes.
05 June 2009: Increase in number of women in supervisory posts (Finland / Information update)
The number of women working in supervisory positions has been growing continuously in Finland since 1984, according to the findings of the Finnish Quality of Work Life Surveys. Moreover, according to the European Working Conditions Survey, Finland is a leading country in this respect. The findings show that women are better than men in areas such as giving support, being more sensitive to employees’ feelings and encouraging them to study and develop further in their work.
20 May 2009: Gender balance in work and family life (Lithuania / Survey data report [ or view as size 329 kb])
The findings of a 2007 survey on the reconciliation of work and family life reveal that Lithuanian society is still quite conservative about sharing family responsibilities between men and women. The main barrier to achieving a better balance between work and family life continues to be the personal attitudes of the respondents themselves. Workers who strive for higher wages and better career prospects tend to give a higher priority to work than to family life.
11 May 2009: Unequal leadership resources in female and male-dominated sectors (Sweden / Information update)
The union representing publicly and privately employed salaried employees in Sweden (SKTF) has published a report based on a survey of member managers working in the economic activities of social welfare and technology. The report finds discrepancies between the two sectors regarding, for example, the time and economic resources necessary for the managers to do a good job. These disparities appear to be the result of differing gender profiles.
28 April 2009: Lack of gender bias in job evaluation in hotels and restaurants (Portugal / Information update)
Portugal’s hotels and restaurants sector is the first sector in the country to develop a job evaluation method free from gender bias. A partnership comprising employee and employer representatives, state public bodies and researchers developed the methodology, which is able to compare the value of occupations mainly occupied by men and by women. The methodology also allows for an evaluation of whether the existing gender pay gap results from gender prejudice and stereotypes.
16 March 2009: Employers show support for family-friendly measures (Malta / Information update)
In 2008, the Malta Employers’ Association conducted a study on family-friendly measures in the public and private sectors. The research aimed to determine how employers deal with requests for family-friendly measures, the type of requests received and how government can help to enhance such measures. Overall, 71% of respondents have never refused requests for family-friendly measures and 89% believe that they are conducive to higher female labour market participation.
16 March 2009: Gender inequality in work–life balance (Italy / Information update)
A study on reconciling work and family, carried out by the National Institute for Statistics, reveals significant inequalities between men and women from a work–life balance perspective. Regarding employed couples, Italian women bear a greater burden of care responsibilities than women from other European Union Member States, while Italian men are the least involved in such work among all of the men surveyed in Europe.
02 March 2009: Women and manual workers have least job satisfaction (Sweden / Information update)
A recently published report examines the trends in the Swedish working environment from an occupational-level and gender perspective. The report is based on a Labour Force Survey and uses a so-called staircase methodology to analyse the results. It shows that blue-collar workers and women experience less job satisfaction than white-collar workers and men. The data also reveal a steady deterioration in working environment quality.
02 March 2009: Expectations about working capacity at age 60 (France / Information update)
One out of three workers do not feel that they will be able to do their current job when they reach 60 years of age. Women more frequently express this concern, as do retail and service workers, and those in blue-collar jobs. Such workers are also more exposed to painful and tiring positions, monotonous work with poor opportunities to develop new skills, inadequate work equipment and tensions with customers or management. These characteristics are, in turn, strongly correlated with concerns about not being able to do the same work at 60 years of age.
02 March 2009: Gender pay gap still apparent in management posts (Czech Republic / Information update)
Access to management positions is not restricted for women in the Czech Republic; nevertheless, they face many obstacles in reaching the pay levels of men in similar positions. Women tend to occupy high posts in the services sector, in less-well paid branches of industry and in less prestigious companies. This is the main cause of the high gender pay gap in management, as is the concern over female managers’ ability to reconcile a demanding profession with family life.
13 February 2009: Gender differences in working conditions (Germany / Information update)
Based on a representative employee survey in 2005–2006, the Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health published new data on gender differences in working conditions. The data reveal that women generally have better working conditions than men, although they are more exposed to chemical substances and repetitive work. Moreover, about three quarters of men and women in full-time jobs work over 40 hours a week. Working unsocial hours is quite evenly balanced between the sexes.
04 February 2009: Companies assessing gender equality for themselves (Portugal / Information update)
A project in Portugal funded by the European Union EQUAL initiative and coordinated by the Portuguese Commission for Equality in Labour and Employment within the Ministry of Labour and Social Solidarity has developed a self-assessment tool for companies. The tool is designed to make a diagnosis of management policies and practices in relation to gender equality, work–family reconciliation, and the protection of maternity and paternity rights.
19 January 2009: Study reveals significantly higher gender pay gap (Malta / Information update)
A study commissioned by the National Commission for the Promotion of Equality (NCPE) concluded that the gender pay gap in Malta amounted to 23.25%, which is substantially higher than the findings of the National Statistics Office, which set the pay gap at only 3.6%. The NCPE study observed that the pay gap is persisting largely due to women’s domestic and childcare responsibilities, but also as a result of occupational segregation and discrimination.
13 January 2009: Effects of childcare responsibilities on women’s income and career (Austria / Information update)
Having one or more children appears to have a clearly negative impact on mothers in terms of their income, labour market integration and career. This is the main conclusion of an analysis of social security data commissioned by the Labour Market Service in Austria. Moreover, the income disadvantages experienced by women due to childcare responsibilities during the first phase of their labour market trajectories does not appear to be compensated for during the later stages of their working life.
07 January 2009: Gender differences still prevail in Maltese labour market (Malta / Survey data report [ or view as size 155 kb])
Data from the Maltese Labour Force Survey show that Malta’s female employment rate stands at 38.5%, rising by 2.2 percentage points between April to June 2007 and 2008. Despite this increase, Malta’s female employment rate is still the lowest among all of the EU Member States. Some 9.7% of all jobs in Malta are part-time positions, while 69% of all part-time workers are women. The largest proportion of working women is found in the education sector, while the highest share of working men can be found in manufacturing.
05 January 2009: Women satisfied with current division of labour (Denmark / Information update)
A study on equality in Denmark questions the existence of real gender equality. Based on a survey, the study focuses not only on the division of labour at work, but also on the division of labour in households. It concludes that gender inequality might stem from an actual difference in personal preferences and reveals high levels of satisfaction with the current division of labour. However, another possibility is that the gender differences stem from society structures.
22 December 2008: More women in labour market but segregation continues (Luxembourg / Information update)
New study findings reveal that, over the space of 15 years, the difference between the rate of female employment in Luxembourg and the EU has decreased. As a result, by 2006, Luxembourg ranked just below the European average in the female employment rate, at 54.6% compared with 58.6% respectively. However, certain obstacles to female employment continue to persist, such as levels of training, childcare and the unequal distribution of domestic tasks.
22 December 2008: Women more at risk of musculoskeletal disorders (France / Information update)
Occupational risks such as intense physical effort, noise, exposure to chemicals and hard weather conditions are most frequently associated with men’s work. However, recent survey analysis shows that women are in the front line regarding risks associated with organisational strain or psychosocial factors such as repetitive work, high demands, low control and low social support. Overall, women represent 58% of recorded cases of work-related musculoskeletal disorders.
22 December 2008: Labour market outcomes of migrant women in Europe (EU Level / Information update)
A new study, published in October 2008, finds that the labour market participation rates of migrant women differ between groups of Member States, particularly for third-country migrant women. The study also finds that the age of the migrant woman’s youngest child and how recently she has arrived in the receiving country affects participation rates. It recommends a multi-dimensional approach to tackling migrant women’s exclusion from the labour force.
22 December 2008: Men’s attitudes to sharing parenting tasks (Bulgaria / Information update)
A survey conducted in 2005–2006 by the Bulgarian Ministry of Labour and Social Policy as part of an EU project aimed to investigate working men’s perceptions of shared parenthood. The survey indicates that traditions are still very strong in Bulgarian society and that stereotypical views on the family roles of the two parents – with the mother being responsible for childcare and the father being the ‘breadwinner’ – still predominate.
08 December 2008: Ongoing gender differences in the labour market (Estonia / Information update)
Based on Labour Force Survey data, Statistics Estonia has analysed gender differences among salaried workers. Although women are generally better educated, they tend to work in low-salaried and less prestigious positions than men. The findings reveal the presence of both vertical and horizontal segregation and show that a large gender pay gap continues to exist. It seems that better possibilities for reconciling work and family life are needed if the situation of women in the labour marke is to improve.
02 December 2008: Gender pay gap largely due to labour market segregation (Belgium / Information update)
The Institute for the Equality of Women and Men has presented its 2008 report on the gender pay gap in Belgium. The findings show that this gap has remained stagnant at 15% for full-time employees in manufacturing and services – just like the previous year. Labour market segregation is seen as the main cause of this divide. The report states that a firm policy change will be needed in the coming years to significantly reduce the gender pay gap in Belgium.
24 November 2008: Encouraging men to play a more active role in caring (Slovenia / Information update)
A Slovenian study conducted as part of the‘Fostering caring masculinities’ (FOCUS) project sought to examine male employees’ and managers’ attitudes to measures for balancing work and private or family life. Among the findings, the study indicates that parental leave provisions are mainly taken up by women and that men only avail of such measures in exceptional cases, fearing that it may have negative implications in the workplace.
13 October 2008: Employers agree on need to balance family and work interests (Lithuania / Information update)
Within the framework of the EU EQUAL initiative, the project‘FORWARD! Family and work reconciliation development’ included a sociological survey to identify employers’ attitudes towards ways of reconciling employees’ family and work interests. While the survey findings reveal a generally positive attitude towards family-friendly policy measures, the study also found negative, paternal attitudes, based on the more traditional roles of men and women.
06 October 2008: Evolution in employment situation of women (Austria / Information update)
A government commissioned statistical analysis of the employment situation of women in Austria does not show any major transformations regarding the gendered distribution of work in the labour market. Even whenwomen and men have the same educational levels, women continue to have lower positions in the occupational hierarchy than men. Nevertheless, according to the study, the situation of women in the labour market has undergone some change over the past 55 years.
24 September 2008: Gender pay gap most acute among highly educated women (Greece / Information update)
In 2007, the Bank of Greece published a study examining the link between educational level and wage differentials between men and women in the labour market. The research calls attention to the fact that highly educated women who are top earners in Greece receive much lower pay than men with similar levels of education. Taking account of a variety of labour market characteristics, the study finds that a sizeable part of the gender pay gap remains unexplained.
18 September 2008: High incidence of atypical work among women (Italy / Information update)
The 2008 report on atypical work by the Institute of Economic and Social Research explored in detail the employment situation of women. It found that, in general, women are over-represented in atypical employment and have less job stability than their male counterparts. Moreover, although women’s employment rate is increasing, it is characterised by strong regional differences and a propensity to work part time.
15 September 2008: Europeans pessimistic about prospects for future regarding jobs and pay (EU Level / Information update)
A Eurobarometer survey shows that almost half of the respondents believe that in 20 years’ time they will be worse off than today. Fears for the future centre on the inability to get good jobs and the likelihood of lower earnings, together with widespread assumptions that working life will be extended. Confidence in the future is higher in the new Member States. Meanwhile, respondents predict a narrowing of the gap in equal opportunities between men and women at work.
03 September 2008: Older workers show highest levels of company loyalty (Lithuania / Information update)
In 2007, as part of an international project, the RAIT market research and analysis group examined employee loyalty in Lithuanian companies. The research found that 61% of respondents were committed neither to their employer nor to their work, while only 19% were committed to both. Job satisfaction and work motivation tended to vary with age and the low level of commitment among young workers can be linked with the start of their professional career.
03 September 2008: Women still underrepresented in senior positions (Cyprus / Information update)
The Statistical Service of Cyprus has published a report entitled ‘The statistical portrait of women in Cyprus’. The research outlines the status of women in Cypriot society at present and in recent years, giving statistical data for a broad range of issues such as participation in the labour force and representativeness in public life. Although women’s labour market participation has grown, the study reveals that wide gender gaps can still arise, particularly in senior positions.
01 August 2008: Part-time work and parental leave widen gender pay gap (Germany / Information update)
The gender pay gap, widely discussed in Germany, has been calculated at 28% in 2006. Further analyses, however, reveal that the difference between the hourly wages of female and male employees decreases to 6% when circumstances such as economic sector and occupation, job tenure, skills level, working time and parental leave are factored in. Investment in childcare facilities could reduce the pay gap, by enabling women to return to work and to work full time.
17 July 2008: Low income levels of immigrant women (Greece / Information update)
A study carried out by the Research Centre for Gender Equality on the labour market status of immigrant women in Greece indicates that a large number of these women are employed without social insurance in low-paid, unskilled jobs. The study reveals that their length of residence in the country has no significant effect on the type of job they perform. Most immigrant women currently work as cleaners, domestic workers or babysitters.
08 July 2008: Effect of performance-based bonuses on gender pay gap (Finland / Information update)
Gender pay differentials are a subject of debate in Finland. The catchphrase ‘A woman’s euro is 80 cents’ has become particularly well known. However, the underlying factors behind this 20% wage gap are not fully understood. One aspect that hampers the illustration of pay differentials is that remuneration is today made up of a diversity of components, which makes pay structures more fluid and the monitoring of gender pay differentials more difficult.
08 July 2008: Impact of divorce on absenteeism levels (Netherlands / Information update)
Changes in marital status may be linked with consecutive data on absenteeism from the occupational health services in the Netherlands. According to a recent study by TNO Work and Employment, it appears that divorce has an impact on absenteeism levels among employees. After a certain period following the divorce, absenteeism among employees in this position declined to the level of absence among those employees who were already divorced at the start of the study.
25 June 2008: Equality policies and practices in companies (Spain / Information update)
The First Spanish Equality at Work Monitor reveals that two thirds of companies are complying with the Equality Law, particularly regarding discrimination, and that 48% have an equality plan. Equality measures are linked to the retention of female talent, and in over 60% of cases they include options such as reduced working time, flexible working hours or access to leave. Although progress has been made, companies still tend to lack coherent equality policies.
25 June 2008: Women’s participation in labour market remains unequal (Bulgaria / Information update)
A survey by the Institute for Social and Trade Union Research on women in the labour market in 2007 reveals continuing gender gaps in terms of employment and pay, as well as professional and occupational segregation. The study finds that over 60% of persons unemployed are women, most of whom are long-term unemployed. As ‘shared parenthood’ is uncommon in Bulgaria, an asymmetry emerges regarding work–life balance which affects transitions in the labour market.
11 June 2008: Factors determining early exit from employment (Malta / Information update)
A qualitative research study carried out by the Employment and Training Corporation in 2007 evaluated the factors influencing individuals’ decisions to exit employment before reaching the statutory retirement age. The study was conducted among 30 men aged 55–60 years who were neither working nor registering for work at the time of the study. Poor working conditions were found to be among the main factors pushing older workers out of employment earlier than expected.
22 May 2008: Unequal distribution of working time between parents (Germany / Information update)
The long working hours of fathers who work full time are a particular problem for parents when it comes to balancing work and family life, according to a study by the Institute of Economic and Social Research. The study’s findings also reveal a strong polarisation between the working times of working fathers and mothers. A majority of parents would welcome shorter working times to be able to balance work and childcare responsibilities more efficiently.
19 May 2008: Gender career gap linked to wage gap between men and women (Belgium / Information update)
The Gender Yearbook 2007 raises awareness of the career gap between women and men as an important driver of the existing gender wage gap in the Flanders region in Belgium. These career gaps can to a large extent be explained by educational segregation between sexes and how the transition from school to labour market is made. Low-skilled women are particularly vulnerable in this regard.
09 May 2008: Lack of qualified childcare staff linked to poor working conditions (Finland / Information update)
A recent survey by the Association of Kindergarten Teachers in Finland reveals that the shortage of qualified kindergarten teachers is becoming increasingly acute. Almost a quarter of child day-care centre directors report serious difficulties in finding qualified candidates, even for permanent jobs. It is feared that a deterioration of day-care services will negatively influence the employment of mothers of small children and increase inequality between families.
30 April 2008: Economic activity and earnings of women (Poland / Information update)
In a publication issued in December 2007, the Central Statistical Office for Poland sets out comprehensive results – with international comparisons – of research on the participation and position of women in social and economic life. The data concerning the economic activity of women and their incomes are of particular interest. Women represent 60% of the economically inactive population in Poland, while working women earn significantly less than men.
30 April 2008: Women and undeclared work (Italy / Information update)
Undeclared work is a persistent feature of the Italian labour market, according to the Vocational Training Development Agency. Women represent a greater proportion of workers in undeclared work than those in the formal labour market and they are mainly engaged in domestic and care work. Most women accept undeclared work because of the lack of suitable opportunities in the formal economy, while some regard such work as a stepping stone towards formal employment.
30 April 2008: Study highlights different career paths of women (Luxembourg / Information update)
In March 2000, the Lisbon European Council set itself the target of boosting employment, notably by increasing the rate of employment among women to 60% by 2010. By 2003, the rate of women’s employment in the EU stood at 56%; however, in Luxembourg it was only 52%. To facilitate an increase in this level, research analysis sought to gain a better understanding of the labour market by examining the patterns of career development among women.
21 April 2008: Young employees and family-friendly work practices (Slovenia / Information update)
A research project sought to examine young parents’ situation in the labour market. Young people often work long hours, and combining work and family is challenging, as employers do not usually have family-friendly policies in place. The employee survey focused on issues of employment and work organisation, parental leave, work–life balance and discrimination. Case studies revealed that employers have little interest in adopting family-friendly policies.
14 April 2008: Working in Europe: Gender differences (EU Level / Survey data report [ or view as size 160 kb])
Data from recent Eurostat publications show that, despite some convergence in employment patterns between women and men, considerable gender differences remain in relation to work. Women have caught up in educational qualifications and increased their employment rate, but family responsibilities are still the main reason for women’s above average inactivity rate. Women also continue to be more concentrated in certain economic sectors. Moreover, a gender-based entrepreneurial gap remains and women remain underrepresented in labour market policy interventions.
03 April 2008: Employment trends of mothers (Hungary / Information update)
Recent research on employment trends among mothers in Hungary looks at their employment rate, whether they work part time or full time and attitudes to their employment. Due to the relatively generous childcare benefit system, and also the lack of high-quality childcare for younger children, the majority of mothers with children under the age of three years choose not to work. However, about half of all mothers return to full-time work after the third birthday of their youngest child.
10 March 2008: Two in three workers work overtime to boost income (Italy / Information update)
The preliminary results of the survey ‘L’Italia che lavora oggi’ (‘The working Italy today’) carried out by the Italian Economic and Social Research Institute show that earnings are higher among those employees working longer hours. In general, working overtime is perceived as a way to increase the personal and family income, particularly among workers with poor career opportunities. The survey findings also reveal that working time impacts on the gender pay gap.
10 March 2008: Monitoring gender equality at the workplace (Slovakia / Information update)
Equal treatment for men and women at work is laid down by law in Slovakia. Nevertheless, violations of equal treatment principles continue to exist, as inspections by state authorities and surveys have shown. Inequality is evident particularly in the areas of remuneration, career development, ensuring gender-friendly working conditions and the traditional stereotyping of jobs as being for men or women only.
10 March 2008: Study examines views of women and men at work (Romania / Information update)
In March–April 2006, the Centre for Partnership and Equality conducted a study of the Bucharest labour market entitled ‘Women and men in organisations’. The research examined issues such as: the time spent at the workplace and its consequences; career development; opinions about women and men in the workplace, and their effects; and gender discrimination. More than half of the survey respondents believe that job promotions are biased.
10 March 2008: Positive effects of anonymous job applications (Sweden / Information update)
Anonymous application procedures are increasingly promoted as a way to combat employment discrimination. In 2007, the Institute for Labour Market Policy Evaluation provided for the first time empirical evidence to this effect in their evaluation of a trial period involving anonymous job applications in Gothenburg. Anonymous applications would seem to improve the chances of advancing to job interviews for both immigrants of non-Western origin and for women in general.
11 February 2008: Conflicting trends in women’s labour market participation rates (France / Information update)
According to a recent analysis of Labour Force Survey data, since the beginning of the 1970s, the activity rate of French women has increased by 25 percentage points, from 50% in 1970 to 75% in 2000. Over the same period, however, their unemployment rate has also risen from 3% to 12%, and the proportion of women working part time has increased from 13% to 30%. Regardless of these increases, the gender gap in the activity rate has been diminishing.
29 January 2008: Study reveals gap in labour market supply and demand (Latvia / Information update)
A recent study reveals serious gaps in the supply and demand of labour. On the supply side, a decline in the overall population, including those of working age, is observed, while the age and gender structure is unbalanced. On the demand side, the economy’s transformation from an industry-based to a service-based structure requires a new quality workforce. Employers will have to plan for a future with fewer workers available.
21 January 2008: Inequality and discrimination in employment (Hungary / Information update)
Although nobody contests the principle of equal treatment in Hungary, its implementation in the workplace seems to be imperfect at best. Recent data reveal that in Hungary women and older people suffer the most cases of discrimination at work; however, discrimination against Roma, as well as people with disabilities, seems to be most entrenched.
14 January 2008: Factors motivating women in Malta to work (Malta / Information update)
The Employment and Training Corporation conducted a study among women to assess their motivation to work and the conditions encouraging them to start or continue working. The study involved three surveys among employed, registered unemployed and economically inactive women. Among the conditions that would entice them to start working or retain their job, women preferred a combination of family-friendly measures, fiscal arrangements and good working conditions.
21 December 2007: Labour market integration of women and low-skilled workers (EU Level / Information update)
In June 2007, the US Government Accountability Office published a study on other countries’ policies and practices aimed at helping women and low-skilled workers to enter and remain in the labour force; among the countries compared are six EU Member States. The study concludes that quality, preferably subsidised, childcare and paid parental leave have a real impact on women’s employment. However, training programmes for low-skilled workers showed little effect.
18 December 2007: Few Spanish workers benefit from flexible working time (Spain / Information update)
A recent study found that fewer than 9% of workers in Spain benefit from flexible working time, well below the 23% average for the 25 EU Member States up to 1 January 2007. More specifically, 8% of working men and 9.2% of working women in Spain enjoy flexible working time practices at work. The option of modifying the start and finish time within a predefined working timetable is the most common flexibility practice at national level, both for men and women.
19 November 2007: ILO underlines need to promote equality at work (EU Level / Information update)
A recent International Labour Organization report provides a global picture of job-related discrimination, ranging from traditional forms such as sex, race or religion, to newer forms based on age and sexual orientation. It points to the need for better enforcement of anti-discrimination legislation, as well as non-regulatory initiatives by governments and enterprises, and for equipping the social partners to be more effective in making equality a workplace reality.
29 October 2007: Working time flexibility improves work–life balance of working parents (Finland / Information update)
According to the Finnish Quality of Work Life Survey 2003, the possibility to use working time flexibility sufficiently for one’s own needs significantly contributes to the work–life balance of Finnish working parents. However, compared with employees with no children, working parents do not seem to have access to greater possibilities for this kind of positive flexibility of working time. Moreover, men can typically influence their working hours more than women can.
29 October 2007: Disparity between awareness of and compliance with gender equality (Latvia / Information update)
Extensive research into gender equality in Latvia – conducted between July 2005 and January 2007 – has revealed a clear horizontal segregation in the labour market in terms of men and women being more prominent in certain occupations and economic sectors. Features of vertical segregation were also found, in that fewer women attained management positions. Gender role stereotypes had a considerable influence on labour market segregation.
09 October 2007: Barriers to promotion for female managers (Spain / Information update)
The Centre for Sociological Research recently published a study analysing the factors that hinder Spanish female managers reaching senior management positions, according to the perceptions of female managers. In this respect, having children is perceived as one of the most significant barriers to pursuing a professional career, especially among the youngest managers.
09 October 2007: Women’s career span shorter by retirement age (Luxembourg / Information update)
A study analyses the gender differences in the total duration of active labour market participation among persons at retirement age in Luxembourg. Educational attainment and number of children have different effects on the careers of men and women. On average, 57–65 year old men have been employed for 38 years, compared with only 21 years for their female counterparts. The study concludes that more policies are needed to reconcile work and family responsibilities.
27 August 2007: Gender pay gap decreasing but wide variations between sectors (Sweden / Information update)
In 2006, women’s wages increased more than men’s in all sectors except the public sector at municipal level. While there are signs therefore of a declining gender pay gap, sectoral wage differences remain considerable. The highest wages are found in the private sector among white-collar workers, while the lowest are recorded in the public sector at municipal level.
27 August 2007: Need for greater flexibility in parental benefit system (Estonia / Information update)
In recent months, two studies have highlighted the need for more flexibility in Estonia’s parental leave and parental benefit system. The reports suggest making it easier to combine part-time work and part-time parental leave. Fathers should also be encouraged to take parental leave. At present, traditional gender roles prevail and women’s careers are undermined by lengthy breaks away from the workplace.
13 August 2007: Employment patterns of female migrant workers (Greece / Information update)
It has proved difficult in practice for female immigrants living in Greece to acquire and renew residence permits, according to a study by the Greek General Confederation of Labour/Confederation of Public Servants. The main reasons for this are the requirements of the country’s statutory framework governing immigration and the fact that female immigrants are largely employed in sectors where undeclared work is widespread.
06 August 2007: Parliamentary report recommends actions to improve work–life balance (Spain / Information update)
The Spanish parliament has recently approved a report on the regulation and adaptation of working time and work flexibility in Spain, aimed at reconciling work, family and personal life. This report underlines the existing gender-related differences with regard to work–life balance and provides a number of recommendations for improving the situation, both for public institutions and private enterprises.
30 July 2007: More progress in gender equality needed (Greece / Information update)
A study commissioned by the Research Centre for Gender Equality (KETHI) analysed the policies that have been developed at European level, and particularly at national level, to promote the employment of women. According to the authors, the gender dimension of employment policies at both European and national levels is a relatively recent development, which coincided with the promotion of gender equality indirectly, through special measures designed to promote female employment. The study was first published in February 2005 by KETHI.
30 July 2007: Rise in labour market participation of migrant workers (Slovenia / Information update)
Demands from employers for work permits for workers from outside the European Union, from so-called ‘third countries’, have increased substantially in the last two years. Such demands have risen largely in the construction sector and in metal manufacturing where it is difficult to attract domestic workers. The majority of foreign workers in Slovenia are from countries of the former Yugoslavia, are mostly men and have a low level of education.
16 July 2007: Barriers to women’s participation in decision-making positions (Malta / Information update)
The National Council of Women commissioned a study to examine the views of the general public with regard to the participation of women in decision-making jobs. Childcare responsibilities are viewed as the most significant obstacle faced by women in obtaining decision-making posts. While most respondents believe that there should be a gender balance in parliamentary and local council representation, a minority think that men are more suitable for such posts.
02 July 2007: Employer attitudes towards employees with preschool age children (Lithuania / Information update)
In the framework of the EQUAL initiative, a Lithuanian project aimed to minimise the labour market exclusion of families with young children. Some 30 employers were interviewed in order to ascertain their attitude towards employees – primarily women – with preschool age children. Less than half of the employers facilitated their employees with preschool age children in reconciling their family and work life.
18 June 2007: Women not more exposed than men to work-related physical risks (Netherlands / Information update)
Contrary to the general assumption that women are physically weaker than men, recent analyses show that exposure to work-related occupational risk factors is neither systematically higher for women nor does it cause them to develop musculoskeletal disorders to a greater extent than men do. It seems that the gender difference in the occurrence of MSD is caused by exposure to other factors than are solely work related.
18 June 2007: School-to-work transition of young people (Malta / Information update)
The Employment and Training Corporation published a report on the school- to-work transition of young people in Malta. According to the findings, young people seem to manage this transition without difficulty. Work-related outcomes appear to be influenced by the sex of the individual, the type of school attended, the level of education and the father’s occupation.
18 June 2007: Women underrepresented in company decision-making processes (Luxembourg / Information update)
In 2004, the Centre for Population, Poverty and Socioeconomic Policy Studies carried out a survey to assess the development of women’s participation in the decision-making processes of companies since 2000. The survey findings indicate that the participation of women in this regard is significantly lower than their representation in the overall workforce. The situation has barely improved since 2000.
14 May 2007: Women in unfavourable position in labour market (Hungary / Information update)
A 2006 study examines the labour market position of women in Hungary between 2000 and 2004. The study shows that, compared with the EU average, the female employment level in Hungary remains static and the unemployment rate is on the increase. Despite legal regulations to combat discrimination on any grounds, women were more disadvantaged than men when entering or re-entering the labour market with respect to pay and career prospects.
14 May 2007: Low participation of women in the labour market (Cyprus / Information update)
In 2006, the Mediterranean Institute of Gender Studies produced a shadow report to the Cypriot government report for the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women. The report’s basic findings cover the labour force participation rate of women, gender pay issues and the unemployment rate among women, and include some measures proposed for dealing with these matters.
07 May 2007: Sustained growth in salary levels over generations (Spain / Information update)
A recent report from the Spanish Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs shows a sustained growth in the average salary levels over employees’ working lives. Moreover, each generation has improved its salary levels in comparison with previous cohorts, although this improvement has slowed down among the youngest generations. On average, women always earn lower salaries than men, irrespective of generation. Furthermore, the salary inequalities between men and women increase with age, and this result is also apparent for all generations.
16 April 2007: Unpaid work prevalent in agricultural sector (Romania / Information update)
Unpaid work is mainly found in subsistence agriculture in Romania. In 2005, 97.5% of unpaid family workers worked in agriculture, while the remaining 2.5% worked either in commerce (1.3%) or other sectors (1.2%). Distribution of workers by sex indicates a higher percentage of women among unpaid family workers, at 72.3%, while distribution by area reveals a higher density of such workers in rural areas, at 94%.
04 April 2007: Widening of the gender pay gap (Estonia / Information update)
In 2005, the gender pay gap in Estonia was 25.4%, which represents the biggest difference in earnings between men and women in the last six years. It is not yet clear if this situation indicates a new trend or just a temporary fluctuation. Segregation of the sexes in respect of working time, sector and occupation explains much of the pay gap, while age and education also have an impact on the wage differences.
04 April 2007: Factors behind low take-up of parental leave (Romania / Information update)
The study entitled ‘Women and men in Romania: Reconciling work and family life’, published by the National Institute of Statistics in 2006, indicates that only 17% of people entitled to parental leave in Romania took advantage of it. The reasons for the low take-up vary according to sex and level of education.
23 March 2007: Fewer women than men hold senior positions in the workplace (Luxembourg / Information update)
Gender segregation in the labour market arises where there is a strong concentration of one gender in certain domains of the labour market. A recent study has analysed the degree of horizontal and vertical segregation among the working population residing in Luxembourg. The results show that women are mainly employed in the sectors of domestic household services, health and social work, education and real estate. They are also predominant in the categories of workers and employees without qualificatiosn, representing 66% of such workers. The study’s findings suggest that the probability for men living in Luxembourg to hold a senior position is twice as high as for women.
14 March 2007: Towards gender equality in information technology jobs (Malta / Information update)
In late 2005, the Employment and Training Corporation published a report on the employment of men and women in information technology occupations. Based on interviews and case studies, the research looked at several gender-friendly practices carried out in private and public sector organisations in areas such as recruitment, training, promotions and working conditions. The report identifies some barriers that explain the relatively low proportion of women participating in IT jobs.
13 March 2007: Overall increase in wages but women still earn less than men (Cyprus / Survey data report [ or view as size 285 kb])
This report analyses the main results from national labour statistics for 2004 and from a survey conducted by the Cyprus Labour Institute (INEK) in 2005. Labour statistics 2004 outlines the general situation of workers and the workplace in Cyprus, and covers topics such as pay rates, working hours and occupational accidents. The study finds a persistent gender pay gap in the Cypriot labour market. The INEK survey examines job insecurity among young people and offers policy recommendations aimed at improving their situation.
02 March 2007: Work and employment in the creative industries (Austria / Information update)
Between July 2004 and January 2007, Joanneum Research and FORBA carried out a research project focusing on work and employment in selected subsectors of the ‘creative industries’ in the capital city, Vienna. The five subsectors examined were advertising, architecture, design (graphic, product and fashion), film, radio and video, and multimedia. As part of the project, a quantitative survey was carried out among 910 workers in Vienna’s creative industries.
19 February 2007: Wage disparities between men and women, regions and occupations (Spain / Information update)
The composition of the labour market determines the wage structure of the Spanish economy. In December 2006, the Spanish National Institute of Statistics published the ‘Annual wage structure survey 2004’, which estimated the average annual wage of a Spanish worker at €18,182 for that year. However, considerable wage differences persist within the labour market. This is related to several variables; for instance, permanent employment contracts, full-time jobs, higher qualified occupations and adult wage-earners are better paid than other workers. From a gender perspective, it must be highlighted that women’s salaries in all sectors are usually much lower than those of their male counterparts.
12 February 2007: Gender pay gap wider for better educated women (Italy / Information update)
The new Isfol survey ‘Plus – Participation, labour, unemployment survey’ is carried out on an annual basis in order to follow developments in the Italian labour market. According to the 2005 report, the gender pay gap is wider for better educated women and increases with length of service. Personal characteristics explain just one third of the pay gap, with the remainder being attributed to discrimination.
05 February 2007: Employment rates of women and men with children (Finland / Information update)
Employment rates declined in Finland during the recession in the early 1990s. In recent years, the employment rate of fathers has almost returned to the level of the 1980s whereas mothers’ employment rates have not risen equally, according to the study ‘Mothers and fathers in the labour market 1989-2002/2003’. During the recession, mothers increasingly took advantage of home care leave, which allows the parent to stay at home until the child is three years old. This has been reflected in women’s lower employment rate since unlike the situation for parental leave, parents on home care leave are not counted as part of the labour force.
12 December 2006: Impact of income on childcare and work–life balance (France / Information update)
In 2002, 46% of mothers of children under the age of seven years were not in paid employment and the same was true for 53% of mothers of children below school age, according to a recent analysis of the 2002 survey on childcare arrangements for young children in France. The analysis reveals that working time constraints are much higher for working parents in lower income groups, and that parents in these groups spend considerably more time minding their children than those with higher incomes. Only 56% of families with a low income avail of fee-paying childcare facilities, compared with 91% of high income families.
20 November 2006: Broader gender perspective needed in debate on ‘making work pay’ (EU Level / Information update)
The report, ‘Making work pay’: debates from a gender perspective, is a comparative review of some recent policy reforms in 30 European countries. The aim of the report is to identify the gender impact of tax or social benefit reforms, the effect of maternity and parental leave on employment (re-)integration, and the development of childcare services as an instrument to support parents’ employment.
13 November 2006: Persistence of gender pay gap (France / Information update)
In 2002, women’s total earnings per hour were, on average, 19% less than those of men in France. This gap can partly be explained by factors such as occupation, company size and incidence of career breaks. However, when all these factors are taken into account, there remains an 11% pay gap between men and women. The pay gap is particularly acute for women in management positions (19%) and for manual workers (15%), and tends to increase with age.
23 October 2006: Attitudes towards gender equality in the workplace (Estonia / Information update)
Although the gender gap in labour market participation has narrowed, gender differences in everyday experiences in the workplace and wage levels persist. Most men and a large proportion of women support the traditional division of labour, find differences in salaries justifiable and regard family and childcare as being mainly the responsibility of women. Meanwhile, the number of women preferring to work part time has increased.
09 October 2006: Over one million workers have more than one employer (France / Information update)
In 2005, workers with several employers and/or various occupations accounted for 1,126,000 people, representing 4.8% of the salaried population in France. The situation varies between those who have a single occupation with different employers and those who have more than one occupation. Those with a single occupation are mainly women, with lower qualifications and aged over 40 years, working in the services sector. The situation of the latter group of workers is more frequently by choice; they are also predominantly older workers but are more qualified and generally have a working week exceeding the legal 35 hours per week. Workers in both these groups are characterised as ‘pluriactive’ workers.
14 August 2006: Pregnancy discrimination in the workplace (United Kingdom / Information update)
Almost half of all pregnant women and new mothers in the United Kingdom experience discrimination at work, according to a recent survey carried out on behalf of the Equal Opportunities Commission (EOC). The survey findings support the EOC’s view that more ought to be done to raise awareness among employers of their legal responsibilities and how they might manage pregnancy more effectively.
18 July 2006: Women’s access to top management in financial services and semi-state bodies (Cyprus / Information update)
Women hold only 5.2% of senior management positions in semi-state organisations, while in financial services they occupy 27.5% of key positions. Almost two thirds of women in the latter sector believe that they have fewer opportunities for career advancement than men have. These are among the findings of a 2005 study, conducted by the Cyprus Employers and Industrialists Federation, on women’s access to senior management positions in these two sectors. The study identifies the reasons behind women’s restricted promotion prospects and puts forward measures for improving the situation.
28 August 2006: Gender mainstreaming in surveys (EU Countries / Topic report [ or view as size 152 kb])
This comparative analytical report provides a comparative overview of how gender mainstreaming is incorporated into national working conditions surveys, based on 12 national contributions. It investigates the conceptual and methodological framework of gender mainstreaming in surveys, as well as its implementation. The report then examines some of the survey findings on the respective situation of women and men regarding working conditions. The national contributions from the following 12 countries are available (as PDF files): Austria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain and Sweden.
24 March 2006: Reconciling work and family life in the financial services sector (Spain / Information update)
Two of the largest Spanish banks, BBVA and Banco Popular, are the first companies in Spain’s financial services sector to introduce plans aimed at a better work–life balance. These plans have been negotiated with the employee representatives, and include a wide array of measures.
24 March 2006: Parental leave and work–life balance (Italy / Information update)
Parental leave and sick leave arrangements are taken up by about 40% of eligible women and 5% of eligible men, a report by the Italian national statistics office (?Istituto nazionale di statistica, ISTAT) reveals. Moreover, while the proportion of women working in paid employment is growing, women still carry out almost 75% of household work – although men have marginally increased their participation in household work. However, the report reveals that a substantial number of applications for parental leave on the part of male workers have been turned down by the employer.
24 March 2006: Working time after parental leave (Sweden / Information update)
Significant differences exist in the proportion of women working full time before and after taking parental leave for their first child, a recently published report reveals. The report also highlights working time differences by sector and occupation level.
30 November 2005: Working conditions in the banking sector (Bulgaria / Information update)
A risk assessment survey among employees in the banking sector found that the main risk factor perceived by the respondents is computer use and its related effects: poor sitting position (reported by 76%, leading to musculoskeletal disorders) and eye problems due to excessive use of screens (reported by 91%).
12 October 2005: Women’s entrepreneurship in rural areas (Estonia / Information update)
A 2004 study investigates women’s satisfaction in being entrepreneurs, and explores the reasons why they start their own business. It also considers the main problems and obstacles facing entrepreneurship.
20 June 2005: Strengthening gender equality measures (Finland / Information update)
The Finnish Equality Act was amended in April 2005 to put more emphasis on equality plans in the workplace. The plans must report, among other things, on how women and men are placed in different tasks and on pay levels. The new law is expected to improve awareness of equality measures in the workplace.
21 February 2005: Lack of flexibility in working hours for women (Italy / Information update)
A 2003 labour market report shows that female participation in the labour market grew rapidly in the 1990s, despite a lack of flexibility in traditional working time arrangements and childcare services. Women are, therefore, forced into part-time work in order to manage their double workload. Self-employment and entrepreneurship offer flexibility but bring greater responsibilities.
10 January 2005: Discrimination in salary levels (Spain / Information update)
There is increasing flexibility in salary levels in Spain. However, levels are still mainly determined by institutional factors, and empirical evidence hints at gender discrimination. The labour market also appears to be segmented by type of contract, with temporary workers reporting lower salaries.
06 December 2004: Estonian women paid less than men (Estonia / Information update)
A recent study shows that, in Estonia, women earned only 72% as much as men, on average, in 1998–2000. Just one-third of the pay gap is explained by observable differences in human capital, occupations and economic sector. Most commentators attribute the pay gap to the horizontal and vertical segregation of the labour market.
29 November 2004: Equal pay principle still to be achieved (Portugal / Information update)
Despite the prominence given to equal pay in community law and in the legal systems of most Member States, there are still difficulties in implementing the principle of equal pay between men and women in the European Union. A study recently published in Portugal shows the need for an integrated legislative and regulatory framework in promoting the effectiveness of the equal pay principle.
18 November 2004: Gender discrimination in the Czech labour market (Czech Republic / Information update)
Research carried out by the Academy of Sciences in the Czech Republic shows that, in spite of extensive legislation calling for equal treatment, a high percentage of women still experience discrimination in the labour market.
29 September 2004: Gender pay differences still striking in Denmark (Denmark / Information update)
The average pay for men is still higher than for women in the Danish labour market, according to a recent study from the National Institute of Social Research. Sector segregation and differences in occupation, educational level and work experience are determining factors but cannot explain the overall observed pay gap.
29 September 2004: More men availing of family leave (Finland / Information update)
A new study shows that fathers took more family leave in the services sector in 2003. In social and health services in particular, but also in the hotel and restaurant sector, men took significantly more family leave as a proportion of regular working time compared with previous years.
18 March 2004: Social and labour market situation of women in Spain (Spain / Information update)
Since 1994 the employment situation of women in Spain has improved considerably. In particular, the salary gap between the genders has remained stable over the 10-year period. However, recent research indicates that women are still more likely than men to be working under temporary contracts. Moreover, recently implemented measures aimed at achieving a work-life balance are regarded as insufficient.