Gender equality

Eurofound adopts a gender mainstreaming approach systematically in its research. Where possible and relevant, research findings, including surveys and policy analyses, disaggregate data by gender. Other research projects provide specific analysis relevant to gender equality. The research covers a wider variety of topics from a gender perspective, such as pay and income, minimum wage, care, employment participation, leave, skills and training, work organisation, job quality, working time, work–life balance and upward convergence, including in pan-European surveys and regular reporting at national level.

COVID-19 and gender equality

The COVID-19 pandemic risks rolling back years of progress on gender equality. Eurofound’s e-survey Living, working and COVID-19 offers an insight into the impact of the pandemic on the lives of EU citizens. Conducted in five rounds during 2020, 2021 and 2022, it allows for comparison of the challenges that arose during the different stages of living through the pandemic. Findings show that COVID-19 is impacting gender equality at home. The pandemic has significantly increased the number of teleworkers in Europe, and women were more likely to work from home during the pandemic than men. Furthermore, the closure of schools and childcare facilities during confinement disproportionately impacted women, who generally assumed greater domestic and care responsibilities.

The findings also reveal a general deterioration of work–life balance among workers in the EU with more women and men reporting work–life conflicts, but women who have to telework and care for small children appear to be struggling most. The percentage of women reporting difficulties was higher in April 2020 than in previous Eurofound surveys. Women are also reporting greater financial strain than men during the pandemic. The COVID-19 survey questionnaire drew on questions used in Eurofound’s pan-European surveys, the European Quality of Life Survey (EQLS) and the European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS).

• Publication: COVID-19 pandemic and the gender divide at work and home (13 October 2022)
• Publication: Fifth round of the Living, working and COVID-19 e-survey: Living in a new era of uncertainty (7 July 2022)
• Podcast series: Eurofound Talks
• Blog: Good news for gender equality as we exit the COVID-19 crisis?
• Blog: COVID-19 intensifies emotional demands on healthcare workers
• Blog: COVID-19 fallout takes a higher toll on women, economically and domestically

In May 2020, Eurofound launched EU PolicyWatch, a new database collating and mapping the national-level policy responses during the pandemic introduced across Europe. Some of these measures have a gender dimension.

• Database: EU PolicyWatch
• Publication: COVID-19: Policy responses across Europe

Employment and gender 

Eurofound research explores the characteristics and consequences of gender gaps in labour market participation, as well as policies and measures aimed at fostering female labour market participation. Women’s employment and participation rates are still lower than those of men in almost all EU Member States. Eurofound has estimated the cost of this gender employment gap in the EU at more than €320 billion in 2018. Although the cost of the gap is falling, the economic loss is still significantly high. Research also looks at upward convergence in the gender employment gap, assessing which are the best and worst-performing Member States in this regard. 

The European Jobs Monitor (EJM) tracks structural change in European labour markets in terms of occupation and sector, giving a qualitative assessment of these shifts using various proxies of job quality. This monitoring includes analysis of patterns of employment change by gender and by job-wage quintile, as well as labour market segregation. 

Wages and gender

Eurofound research covers a range of topics linking wages and gender, such as variable pay, performance-related pay, low pay and the gender pay gap. Survey research looks at earnings as one of seven indicators of job quality for men and women at work. On minimum wages, an annual review monitors the level of minimum wages across Europe, also measuring coverage rates of workers by gender in 2019 and the link with the gender pay gap. Furthermore, the EJM analyses the extent to which different jobs, occupations and sectors contribute to the gender pay gap. This will be useful for the interpretation of the Commission’s social scoreboard’s indicator on the gender pay gap and for the implementation of the gender-equality principle of the European Pillar of Social Rights.

• Publication: Minimum wages in 2022: Annual review
• Blog: Minimum wage – Yet another gender divide?

Eurofound reviewed the first experiences of countries with gender pay transparency measures in 2018. At the Commission’s request, Eurofound has initiated an ad hoc study on measures to promote gender pay transparency in companies, looking at how much they cost and whether companies can see any opportunities. This will feed into the Commission’s impact assessment.

• Blog: Gender pay transparency: Advancing the cause through a truly European proposal

Working conditions and gender

Eurofound’s European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS) covers a range of aspects of working conditions from a gender perspective. In recent questionnaires, gender mainstreaming has been an important topic. The survey monitors occupational, sectoral, time and pay gaps, as well as working time patterns, work–life balance, violence and harassment at work, and health and well-being, including what all this means for sustainable work. 

EWCS analysis will help to inform policies aimed at closing gender gaps in the area of job and employment quality. The knowledge provided is relevant for the principle of gender equality and initiatives to improve work–life balance, as well as those included in the context of the European Pillar of Social Rights.

Research also looks at the experience of women in management roles and how their underrepresentation in management can be addressed. It analyses the job quality of both male and female managers, and the impact a management job has on personal life.

Other research analyses the level of female entrepreneurship in Europe and the market gap when it comes to investing in women-led enterprises. It examines the financial hurdles facing female entrepreneurs and the use of private or public funds to invest in this group. In addition, it investigates the prevalence of public finance tools and public support schemes that effectively remove barriers and enable women to become competent entrepreneurs.

The higher participation of women in the labour market has prompted changes in the way European social partner organisations tackle gender issues. Research has also assessed the role of the EU social partners in advancing gender equality, exploring actions taken within the different national frameworks of industrial relations and against the ranking of Member States on EIGE’s Gender Equality Index.

Moreover, Eurofound has worked on a joint project with the International Labour Organization (ILO) to look at working conditions in a global perspective. It expands on gender gaps across the world (1.2 billion workers) and provides evidence on the gendered differences in job quality and on higher risk of women to be exposed to sexual violence; the latter is also identified in EWCS 2015.  

Quality of life and gender

The European Quality of Life Survey (EQLS) also covers the gender dimension, in relation to issues such as employment, income, risk of poverty, household composition and well-being, education, family and care responsibilities, health and work–life balance.

Both the EWCS and EQLS data contribute to the policy debate on reconciliation issues and work–life balance for men and women. The EQLS looks at the difference between men and women in their levels of life satisfaction or happiness. The gendered division of unpaid work, in relation to for example childcare or caring for elderly relatives, is also covered in the EQLS.

Research on patterns of social mobility for men and women across the EU looks at barriers to equal opportunities and policies to promote it. It highlights the increasingly important gendered patterns of social mobility in different countries.  

Eurofound collaboration with EIGE

Eurofound cooperates with the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) on gender-related topics. Eurofound is a key data provider for EIGE’s Gender Equality Index and is involved in the working group for this indicator. On 3 March 2022, at Eurofound’s Forum 2022 on recovery and resilience in the EU, EIGE participated in the session on the future of work. And to mark International Women's Day on 8 March 2022, the two Agencies held a joint webinar to reassess gender inequalities in the labour market in light of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. On 24 October 2022, Eurofound will host a workshop at EIGE’s Gender Equality Forum 2022 with an interactive panel discussion on living and working in Europe in an era of disruption. In 2021, the two Agencies collaborated on a joint webinar 'Gender equality: It's not all about pay' and on a joint project on upward convergence in the various dimensions of the Gender Equality Index. Other areas for collaboration include the socioeconomic impact of COVID-19 on women and gender equality, the thematic analysis of the EJM on gender and age, as well as research on platform work. 

• EIGE: Gender Equality Index
• Eurofound: Foundation Forum 2022
• Joint event: Watch the webinar: #AskTheExpert: Reassessing gender inequalities in the labour market: impact of COVID-19 pandemic
• Eurofound @EIGE Gender Equality Forum 2022: Living and working in Europe in an era of disruption: Gendered impacts, challenges and opportunities
• Joint event: Watch the webinar - #AskTheExpert: Gender equality – It’s not all about pay
• EIGE: Covid-19 and gender equality
• Joint publication: Upward convergence in gender equality: How close is the Union of equality?