Low participation of women in the labour market

In 2006, the Mediterranean Institute of Gender Studies produced a shadow report to the Cypriot government report for the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women. The report’s basic findings cover the labour force participation rate of women, gender pay issues and the unemployment rate among women, and include some measures proposed for dealing with these matters.

The Mediterranean Institute of Gender Studies (MIGS) was founded in 2001 as a non-profit organisation and is affiliated to Intercollege, one of the main private higher education institutions in the Republic of Cyprus. In its Shadow Report 2006 for the Convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women (CEDAW), MIGS examines the national context in relation to women’s rights and highlights a number of critical factors affecting women. The report also proposes recommendations for action in these areas.

Labour force participation and gender wage gap

Despite policy reforms made by the Cyprus government to combat discrimination and increase women’s labour market participation, the MIGS report revealed that women in Cyprus still lag behind men in terms of access to employment opportunities and career advancement. They also continue to be confronted with a substantial gender wage gap.

Although the employment rate in Cyprus is relatively high at 72.2%, statistical evidence indicates that Cyprus has in reality a significantly high gender segregation in employment. In 2002, the services sector absorbed 84% of female employment, with almost 50% of employed women concentrated in such sectors as wholesale and retail trade, hotels and restaurants, manufacturing and education. On the other hand, 58% of male employment is concentrated in the sectors of manufacturing, construction, wholesale and retail trade, and public administration.

Furthermore, in relation to the gender wage convergence, in 2006, the average gross hourly wage for women was about 26% less than that for men. According to the MIGS report, even though the gender wage gap can be partly explained by gender segregation in employment, where women are more frequently found in low-paid jobs, gender wage differences exist even between men and women sharing similar occupations and educational characteristics. Gender-related wage discrimination is apparent in employer practices as well as in contract negotiations due to patriarchal attitudes that undervalue women’s experience. It is also related to the limited negotiation powers among women working in various professions and sectors.

Unemployment rate among women

Although the unemployment rate in Cyprus is relatively low, the percentage of unemployed women has always been higher than the corresponding figure for men and, in fact, has risen from 4.6% in 2003 to 5.4% in 2004. A relatively high female unemployment rate also exists among women aged 35–44 years, revealing that women face particular difficulties when trying to reenter the labour force after a period of inactivity. This suggests that there is a lack of government policies and societal support for women who find themselves in this position. Moreover, women constitute the majority of long-term unemployed people, reflecting inequalities in terms of opportunities in, and access to, employment.

The MIGS report contends that the abovementioned unemployment rates do not paint the full picture of unemployment in Cyprus. One reason for this is that a large number of people, particularly women, employed in seasonal jobs in the services sector are not eligible to claim unemployment benefits during the off-peak season. Perhaps more important in this regard are the cultural and social practices in Cyprus that discourage people in general, but women in particular, from applying for benefits because of the associated negative social connotations. For example, in order to receive unemployment benefits, each individual must visit the Department of Labour every fortnight to sign on and to prove that they remain unemployed. This often dissuades people from claiming their rights for fear of ‘exposure’ in a country where the social significance of ‘what people will say’ is still prevalent. Another reason for this dissuasion relates to societal norms on what constitutes ‘women’s work’; women who do not work, but are actively seeking work, are often not considered to be ‘unemployed’ but, rather, women looking to make a financial contribution to the family than embarking on a career.

Proposed measures

The MIGS report outlines several recommendations to combat the low participation rate of women in the labour force, the gender wage gap and the unemployment rate, namely:

• to take immediate measures aimed at reducing the gender wage gap, by firstly addressing gender segregation and targeting sectors traditionally dominated by male employees and informing employers of their obligations under the equal pay for equal work law;

• the need of a concerted effort, through training and the creation of opportunities, to encourage women to enter occupations traditionally dominated by men and vice versa;

• to provide incentives, particularly to employers, to adopt family-friendly policies and work environments;

• to launch information and awareness campaigns for employers and trade union leaders.

Further information

Additional information on the report can be found on the website of the Association of Organisations of Mediterranean Businesswomen (AFAEMME), available at: http://www.afaemme.org/publications.php.

Polina Stavrou, INEK/PEO