Gender perspective on working conditions in Slovakia
Published: 20 September 2009
A Slovakian survey on ‘Gender, work and health’ has examined employee opinions and attitudes in relation to working conditions – especially occupational health and safety – from a gender perspective. Gender segregation is still apparent in the workplace. Men are more likely to be offered physically arduous work, whereas such work is considered unsuitable for women. However, women employed in industry often perform monotonous, repetitive tasks, which are also a health risk.
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A Slovakian survey on ‘Gender, work and health’ has examined employee opinions and attitudes in relation to working conditions – especially occupational health and safety – from a gender perspective. Gender segregation is still apparent in the workplace. Men are more likely to be offered physically arduous work, whereas such work is considered unsuitable for women. However, women employed in industry often perform monotonous, repetitive tasks, which are also a health risk.
Background
In principle, men and women can perform the same type of work, provided that a gender-sensitive approach to the execution of tasks is adopted. In other words, despite the fact that men and women are equal, biological differences remain and must be taken into consideration.
In order to evaluate working conditions from a gender perspective in practice, the Regional Authorities of Public Health of Slovakia (Regionálne úrady verejného zdravotníctva Slovenskej republiky) and the Institute for Labour and Family Research (Inštitút pre výskum práce a rodiny, IVPR) conducted a survey in 2007 to gain insight into gender differences in employees’ perceptions of working conditions in Slovakia. Occupational health risks and outcomes were the main focus of the investigation, which was entitled ‘Gender, work and health’. The survey was carried out as an additional module in the framework of the EQUAL project ‘Working conditions as determinants of gender inequality of work’, financed by the European Social Fund. The project outputs are used in the consultancy activities of the labour inspectorate and public health authorities.
About the survey
The survey is based on a questionnaire administered to 486 employees (189 men and 297 women) working in 31 establishments in seven different sectors of economic activity: agriculture and forestry; production and distribution of electricity, gas and water; construction; hotels and restaurants; financial intermediation; education; and health and social work. The number of respondents reflected the available resources in terms of money and time, and the sectors were selected based on the willingness of companies to disclose information and participate in the survey. The questionnaires were delivered to the respondents in the companies by workers of the regional authorities of public health and the respondents handed them back the completed questionnaires the next day. As a result, a return rate of almost 100% was achieved. Although the sample was not representative of the general working population and all sectors of economic activity, the survey provides useful information about the current situation on the matter.
The questions in the survey aimed to give an insight into different aspects of working conditions and work-related health risks. Answers to most of the questions were on a five point scale: fully agree, agree, do not know, disagree, fully disagree. For some questions, a ‘yes/no’ dichotomy was used, while others were left as open questions.
Profile of respondents
The survey respondents were aged between 15 and 68 years; the average age was 40 years – about the same for men (39.5 years) and women (40.8 years).
All of the respondents were full-time employees. Most of them worked in single-shift operations, which is most common in Slovakia. Table 1 outlines more details about the survey respondents according to the type of shift work.
| Men | Women | Total | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | |
| Single-shift work | 112 | 59.3% | 148 | 49.8% | 260 | 53.5% |
| Two-shift work | 45 | 23.8% | 87 | 29.3% | 132 | 27.2% |
| Night work | 32 | 16.9% | 62 | 20.9% | 94 | 19.3% |
Source: Perichtova, 2008
In general, the educational level of the respondents was higher than the average in Slovakia. Table 2 summarises the educational details of those surveyed.
| Men | Women | Total | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | |
| Primary education | 4 | 2.1% | 5 | 1.7% | 9 | 1.9% |
| Lower secondary education | 78 | 41.3% | 105 | 35.2% | 183 | 37.6% |
| Full secondary education | 66 | 34.9% | 92 | 31.1% | 158 | 32.6% |
| University education | 41 | 21.7% | 95 | 32.1% | 136 | 27.9% |
Note: Some of the figures may add up to slightly more than 100% due to rounding of data.
Source: Perichtova, 2008
The following sections summarise the survey findings.
Choice and content of occupation
Respondents were asked about the reasons for selecting their occupation. The following options were available as potential answers: appropriate qualification level, suitable work, good career, good pay, good working conditions and limited options for selection. The most frequent reason that respondents gave for choosing their occupation was that the work, especially the job content, suited them (42.2% of respondents), followed by having the necessary qualifications for the job (26.2%). Table 3 outlines further details on respondents’ selection of occupation.
| Men | Women | Total | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | |
| Qualification level | 43 | 22.8% | 84 | 28.3% | 127 | 26.2% |
| Suitable work | 78 | 41.3% | 127 | 42.7% | 205 | 42.2% |
| Good career | 4 | 2.1% | 3 | 1.0% | 7 | 1.4% |
| Good pay | 3 | 1.6% | 3 | 1.0% | 6 | 1.2% |
| Working conditions | 15 | 7.9% | 18 | 6.1% | 33 | 6.8% |
| Limited options | 46 | 24.3% | 62 | 20.9% | 108 | 22.2% |
Source: Perichtova, 2008
The survey asked the respondents about the information that was available to them regarding carrying out their work, for example in relation to harmful factors, protection against such risks and the best mode of operation. The answers of those surveyed did not show any significant differences in gender terms. Most of the respondents (87.6%) thought that they had sufficient information about the work that they were doing. Furthermore, 73% of the respondents – men and women – thought that they had enough information on how to perform their work in the best way.
Physical working environment
Questions on the physical working environment focused on assessing the level of availability and suitability of technical tools and equipment, and their maintenance at the workplace. The majority of men (70.7%) and women (68.4%) were satisfied (fully agreed and agreed) with their physical working conditions. An insignificant difference was found between men and women in terms of perceiving their working conditions. In total, 20.2% of respondents did not agree with the way that their working conditions were designed and 10% of respondents stated that they could not judge this.
Overall, 20.8% of women and 19.4% of men expressed dissatisfaction with their physical working conditions. Differences arose according to education, economic sector and occupation; however, the figures should be read with caution as the number of observations is often very small.
According to educational level, dissatisfaction with their working conditions was expressed mainly by men with a primary and secondary education only (67.8% – 14 respondents). Educational level did not determine women’s dissatisfaction with their working conditions: between 20% and 33% of female respondents in all education groups reported dissatisfaction in this regard.
With regard to economic sector, men working in agriculture and forestry (41.7% – 10 respondents) were foremost among those expressing dissatisfaction with their working conditions. Among the female respondents, women working in hotels and restaurants (42.2% – 19 respondents) were primarily concerned in this respect.
In occupational terms, dissatisfaction with their working conditions was expressed mainly by men doing manual labour (50% – two respondents) and men working as machine and equipment operators (36.4% – eight respondents). Among women, clerks (38.1% – eight respondents) and managers (33.3% – four respondents) recorded the highest dissatisfaction with their working conditions.
Professional skills recognised
Respondents were asked whether the company management took into account their professional skills. Answers were provided on a five-point scale: fully agree, agree, do not know, disagree and fully disagree. Most of the men and women were satisfied (fully agreed and agreed) with how the company management took into account and used their professional skills. Table 4 outlines more details in this regard.
| Men | Women | Total | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | |
| Fully agree | 22 | 11.6% | 28 | 9.4% | 50 | 10.3% |
| Agree | 114 | 60.4% | 169 | 57.0% | 283 | 58.2% |
| Don’t know | 39 | 20.6% | 60 | 20.2% | 99 | 20.4% |
| Disagree | 6 | 3.2% | 11 | 3.7% | 17 | 3.5% |
| Fully disagree | 8 | 4.2% | 29 | 9.7% | 37 | 7.6% |
Source: Perichtova, 2008
Workers’ dissatisfaction with how the company management took their professional skills into account was analysed by education, economic sector and occupation; however, again, the figures should be read with caution because of the limited sample size of the survey.
Some 21.7% (18 respondents) of women and 11.8% (four respondents) of men with a university education expressed dissatisfaction with how their capabilities were taken into account, as did 17.6% (13 respondents) of women with a secondary vocational education and 10.4% (five respondents) of men with a secondary educational level. On the other hand, all of the men and women with only a primary level education reported satisfaction in this area.
The highest proportion of dissatisfied women in relation to management recognition of their skills was in the agriculture and forestry sector, at 36.4% (eight respondents). This was followed by women in hotels and restaurants (29% – 11 respondents), financial intermediation (17.2% – five respondents) and construction (16.7% – three respondents). Men expressed dissatisfaction with this issue in the hotels and restaurants sector (10% – three respondents) and in health and social work (10% – two respondents). The least dissatisfaction was recorded by women (9.8% – four respondents) and men (6.3% – one respondent) employed in the education sector.
Dissatisfaction with how professional abilities are taken into account by the employer was reported by women mainly employed in lower occupational positions, such as clerks (25% – four respondents) and ancillary staff (20% – four respondents). This was also the case among men in lower administrative positions (25% – two respondents). Men acting as managers, craft operatives and ancillary staff expressed no dissatisfaction regarding management recognition of their skills.
Suitability of working conditions for men and women
Perceived suitability for men
All of the respondents first assessed the suitability of working conditions for men, including – for example – working time, the physical environment and occupational health and safety.
The majority of the women surveyed (54%) could not answer whether the working conditions of jobs that men are doing were suitable for men_._ In total, 79.6% of men considered their working conditions as suitable.
The differing opinions of the male respondents regarding their working conditions were analysed according to educational level, economic sector and occupation. Once more, the data should be interpreted with caution because of the small number of cases. The following results were found.
Fewer than 20% of the male respondents from all educational groups expressed dissatisfaction with working conditions for men. Men with a secondary vocational education were most dissatisfied with their working conditions (19% of the group – 15 respondents).
Men working in the agriculture and forestry sector recorded the highest dissatisfaction with working conditions for men (32.1% of the group – nine respondents), followed by those working in the education sector (29.4% of the group – five respondents).
Dissatisfaction with working conditions for men was primarily expressed by men working as machine and equipment operators (30.4% of the group – seven respondents).
Perceived suitability for women
All of the survey respondents then assessed the suitability of working conditions for women. Up to 50% of the men surveyed could not assess whether the working conditions of jobs that women are doing were suitable for women. Almost 76% of women considered that their working conditions were suitable.
The differing opinions of the female respondents regarding their working conditions were likewise analysed according to educational level, economic sector and occupation; however, the data should be treated with caution because of the small sample size of the survey. The following results emerged.
In terms of educational levels, dissatisfaction with the suitability of working conditions for women was expressed mainly by women with secondary vocational education (18.5% of the group – 15 respondents).
Women working in the hotels and restaurants sector reported the highest level of dissatisfaction with the suitability of working conditions for women (23.7% of the group – nine respondents), followed by those working in the agriculture and forestry sector (20% of the group – five respondents).
Mainly women who were employed as service workers (21.1% of the group – four respondents) and ancillary staff (17.4% of the group – four respondents) expressed dissatisfaction with working conditions for women.
Perceived suitability for both genders
All of the survey respondents then answered a question regarding the suitability of their work for the opposite gender – ‘The job that I do should be carried out: only by men, only by women, by both genders.’
Nearly 50% of the male respondents replied that their work should be carried out only by men. By contrast, only 18% of women assessed that the work which they performed should be carried out only by women. In total, 81% of female respondents answered that their work could be done by both men and women, whereas only 48.7% of male respondents held the same view regarding their work.
As before, the survey responses were analysed according to education, economic sector and occupation. The caveat concerning the small number of cases remains.
In terms of educational level, 92.9% of men (39 respondents) and 95.7% of women (89 respondents) with a university education considered that their work could be carried out by both men and women. However, no men with only a primary education shared this view. Meanwhile, 32.9% of men (26 respondents) with a lower secondary education and 42.2% of men (27 respondents) with a secondary vocational education believed that their work could be carried out by both genders. The proportions of women at all educational levels considering their job as appropriate for both genders are as follows: 80% of women (four respondents) with primary education only, 72% of women (72 respondents) with a lower secondary education, 77.4% of women (72 respondents) with full secondary education and, as noted, 95.7% of women (89 respondents) with a university education.
Substantial differences arose regarding economic sector. The lowest acceptance of suitability of the job for both genders was expressed mainly by men working in the agriculture and forestry sector (33.4% – 10 respondents) and in the construction sector (21.2% – 14 respondents). However, the majority of men and women working in other sectors considered their jobs as appropriate for both genders (Table 5).
| Men | Women | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Number | % | Number | % | |
| Agriculture and forestry | 10 | 33.4% | 24 | 88.9% |
| Construction | 14 | 21.2% | 19 | 79.2% |
| Distribution of electricity, gas and water | 8 | 53.3% | 18 | 72.0% |
| Hotels and restaurants | 23 | 62.2% | 33 | 64.7% |
| Financial intermediation | 5 | 100% | 37 | 92.5% |
| Education | 16 | 88.9% | 37 | 88.1% |
| Health and social work | 16 | 80.0% | 71 | 82.6% |
Source: Perichtova, 2008
In relation to occupation, men in blue-collar roles such as machine operators (13.6% – three respondents) and craft workers (16% – four respondents) gave little support to the view that women could carry out the men’s work. Male managers (78.6% – 11 respondents), clerks (77.8% – seven respondents) and technicians (96.6% – 28 respondents) were the most supportive in this regard, as were women in all occupations (100% – 79 respondents) except unskilled workers (46.9% – 15 respondents).
Risks at work and impact of work on health
A set of further questions pertained to unfavourable factors at work. Respondents answered ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to questions related to strenuous mental work, hard manual work, the presence of unfavourable chemical, physical or biological factors, and inconvenient microclimatic conditions – such as very hot or cold temperatures.
A surprisingly high number of respondents reported the presence of unfavourable factors at work and in the working environment. A significantly higher proportion of men than women cited unfavourable physical factors and hard manual work in their job. On the other hand, about three times more women (39.1%) than men (13.2%) reported unfavourable biological factors in their work. Table 6 summarises more detailed information on these occupational risks.
| Men | Women | Total | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | |
| Strenuous mental work | 78 | 41.8% | 155 | 52.2% | 233 | 47.9% |
| Hard manual work | 79 | 41.8% | 90 | 30.3% | 169 | 34.8% |
| Chemical factors | 68 | 36.0% | 114 | 38.4% | 182 | 37.2% |
| Physical factors | 90 | 47.6% | 87 | 29.3% | 177 | 36.4% |
| Biological factors | 25 | 13.2% | 116 | 39.1% | 141 | 29.0% |
| Difficult microclimatic conditions | 54 | 28.6% | 41 | 13.8% | 95 | 19.5% |
Source: Perichtova, 2008
Overall, 75.9% of those surveyed (369 respondents) considered their health as good, comprising 75.8% of men (143 respondents) and 75.9% of women (226 respondents). Indeed, 20% of men (38 respondents) and 16.6% of women (49 respondents) rated their health as very good. A smaller proportion of men (4.2% – eight respondents) than women (7.5% – 22 respondents) considered their health as poor. In total, 50.3% of men (95 respondents) and 48.5% of women (144 respondents) reported that their health was at risk in their workplace.
In terms of specific health risks, Table 7 shows which illnesses – in the opinion of those surveyed – would be induced by factors existing at the respondents’ workplace.
| Men | Women | Total | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Number | % | Number | % | Number | % | |
| Musculoskeletal disorders | 46 | 24.1% | 78 | 26.4% | 124 | 25.5% |
| Breathing problems | 23 | 12.0% | 47 | 15.9% | 70 | 14.4% |
| Cardiovascular illness | 21 | 11.0% | 31 | 10.5% | 52 | 10.7% |
| Skin disease | 17 | 8.9% | 32 | 10.9% | 49 | 10.1% |
| Sensory problems | 25 | 13.1% | 31 | 10.5% | 56 | 11.% |
| Nervous system disorders | 12 | 6.3% | 8 | 2.7% | 20 | 4.1% |
| Digestive system disorders | 2 | 1.0% | 3 | 1.0% | 5 | 1.0% |
| Genital organ disorders | 0 | 0.0% | 8 | 2.7% | 8 | 1.8% |
| Mental illness | 26 | 13.6% | 80 | 27.1% | 106 | 21.8% |
Source: Perichtova, 2008
As psychological demands were often mentioned as a risk factor and as they can lead to mental illness, this aspect was analysed by educational level, economic sector and occupation; however, the data should be read with caution due to the small number of cases. The following results were found.
Mainly men and women with a university education (men 23.8% – 10 respondents and women 34.4% – 32 respondents) considered the psychological demands at work as a risk factor.
Men working in the education sector (22.2% – four respondents) and women employed in health and social work (57% – 49 respondents) were foremost among those assessing the psychological demands as an occupational risk in their work.
Men working in health, teaching and technical occupations (33.3% – 14 respondents) and women in managerial positions (38.5% – five respondents) were more likely to view the psychological demands as a risk factor.
Commentary
In Slovakia, traditional views on the employment of men and women persist. This is evident mainly in choosing jobs and in considering employment from a sectoral perspective. Women are dominant in the services sector, mainly in healthcare, social work, education and commerce. With regard to occupations requiring a higher education with prevailing mental work, there is a trend towards gender equality both in access to education and the possibilities of finding a job. However, technical jobs and top management positions are an exception in this regard, where the prevalence of men persists.
Meanwhile, traditional physically heavy work and work where workers usually get dirty are almost exclusively offered to and taken by men. On the other hand, women in industry often perform monotonous, repetitive tasks with, for example, a one-sided excessive load on certain parts of the body, a forced working pace or an ergonomically unsuitable work station.
Data from this analysis represent the attitudes and knowledge of randomly selected individuals from a limited number of companies. Nevertheless, the results help to better understand the real situation at workplaces and will be used by authorities in the public healthcare sector as a valuable resource for establishing healthy working conditions for men and women.
The principal success of the project is that the topic of gender equality has been incorporated into legislation in the area of occupational health and safety. Having a gender approach to the working environment and working conditions is – according to the new Act No. 355/2007 Coll. on protection, support and development of public health – one of the obligations of the employer. According to Article 52, subsection 1.g of this act, the employer is obliged
to secure satisfactory health surveillance for employees regarding the specific risks and taking into account specific requirements resulting from gender relevancy so that men and women should have the same possibility to execute their work.
Reference
Perichtova, B. (ed.), Pracovné podmienky a rodová rovnosť [Working conditions and gender equality], IVPR, Bratislava, 2008.
Eleonora Fabianova, Regional Authority of Public Health, Banská Bystrica and
Perichtova Beata, Institute for Labour and Family Research, Bratislava
Eurofound recommends citing this publication in the following way.
Eurofound (2009), Gender perspective on working conditions in Slovakia, article.
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