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Youth

Youth is the term used to describe the period between childhood and adulthood. While this may be a fluid definition, it is also used in policy terms to refer to specific age groups. Providing a good environment for young people to grow up, learn and work is a key goal for Europe and for Eurofound – but one that faces particular challenges. Young people have long been an important focus of policy at EU level and this is particularly true today. 

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From July to December 2024, Eurofound supports the work of Hungary's presidency of the Council of the EU, providing valuable research results on specific topics linked with the presidency priorities.

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Key messages

  • Young people have suffered major economic and social consequences as a result of spiralling unemployment since 2008. The economic loss to the EU of having such large numbers of young people outside the labour market and education is estimated at above €153 billion a year.
  • The 2008–2013 crisis highlighted how young people are more vulnerable to economic recession than other age groups. Youth unemployment soared above 40% in many EU countries, and the share of young people not in employment, education or training (NEET) peaked at a historical high of 16% of the entire EU population aged 15–29. 
  • Despite EU and Member State policy efforts to support young people in the wake of the 2008 financial crisis, young people were also hardest hit by job loss during the COVID-19 crisis. Overrepresented in the sectors most impacted by pandemic restrictions and more likely to work on temporary contracts or part time, 12% of 18-to 29-year-olds who responded to at least two rounds of the Living, working and COVID-19 e-survey reported that they had lost their job, with 12% of students also facing unemployment.
  • Unemployed or inactive young people were most likely to experience housing insecurity than other groups during the pandemic (17% in spring 2021) and reported difficulty making ends meet (43%), as well as having no savings (39%); however, over half of young people reported living with their parents, which provided some security. Unless young people can participate actively in education and the labour market there is a high risk of their long-term disengagement with serious implications for their and society’s future.
  • The COVID-19 crisis had a disproportionate impact on young people’s life satisfaction and mental well-being compared to older groups. This improved between spring and summer 2020 when lockdowns eased but dropped to its lowest point in spring 2021 when restrictions and school closures returned, contributing to a decrease in life satisfaction and mental well-being where nearly two-thirds of young people were at risk of depression.
  • Young people’s trust in institutions overall also remained higher than other groups despite being hardest hit by the COVID-19 crisis in terms of mental health and employment. It will be important for policymakers to build on this social capital and ensure investment in youth remains at the top of the EU policy agenda.
  • A wide range of measures were introduced to support young people during the pandemic. These included the reinforced European Youth Guarantee, national initiatives to keep young people in education, and measures to reduce barriers to existing financial support and social protection specifically for young people; however, many of these policy responses were temporary. To ensure greater resilience in future crises, it will be crucial for policymakers to prioritise long-term measures for young people, such as permanent improvements in access to work and apprenticeships and measures to increase job security.

Eurofound research

Eurofound has carried out a large body of work on youth issues related to employment, quality of life and social cohesion. In light of the economic and social crisis following the COVID-19 pandemic, research continues to look at issues affecting young people in several topic areas, particularly employment and labour markets, living conditions and quality of life, as well as access to public services.

COVID-19 and its impact on young people

Eurofound’s unique e-survey, Living, working and COVID-19, provides an insight into the impact of the pandemic on people's lives, including young people, with the aim of helping policymakers shape the response to this crisis. Carried out in several rounds, it allows for comparison of the challenges facing young people during the different stages of living through the pandemic.  

Building on this research, Eurofound has analysed the impact of COVID-19 on young people in the EU in terms of employment, their economic situation, social exclusion, mental well-being and trust in institutions. It also provides an overview of the policy measures put in place to reduce the economic and social impact of the pandemic on young people. 

2008–2013 crisis and jobs

In the aftermath of the 2008–2013 crisis, EU unemployment soared to alarming levels, hitting 20% for those aged 15–29 and reaching even higher levels in individual Member States. With the help of the Young Guarantee and other measures, youth unemployment has recovered in recent years, finally reaching pre-crisis levels in 2019. But the questions remain as to where the jobs are and how young people can be helped, particularly those who are disengaged from the labour market over the long term. The reinforced Youth Guarantee will be crucial here in reacting to the COVID-19 crisis and in avoiding another sharp increase in youth unemployment. Eurofound's research provides a broad range of inputs to the development of youth policy, looking at:

  • long-term unemployed youth
  • start-up support for young people
  • youth entrepreneurship in Europe
  • mapping youth transitions in Europe
  • youth and work and policy pointers aimed at improving this aspect of life for young people
  • helping young workers during the crisis and the contributions of social partners and public authorities
  • experiences of the Youth Guarantee in Finland and Sweden
  • young people not in employment, education or training.

The focus of research has recently been adapted to examine the effects of COVID-19 on young people in Europe.

NEETs and exclusion

Alongside high unemployment, since 2008 the Member States have been dealing with the disproportionate impact of the recession on young people under 30, even those with higher levels of education. The number of those aged 15–29 who were not in employment, education or training (NEET) rose rapidly after 2008, but had been declining again since 2014, returning to pre-crisis levels by 2018. Yet the rates remained high in some Member States, particularly Italy and Greece. Eurofound seeks to understand the economic and social consequences of youth disengagement from the labour market and education.

Research on the impact of COVID-19 on young people has focused on the economic and social situation of young people at the onset of the pandemic, particularly NEETs. It describes the labour market participation of young people during the period 2007–2020 and discusses the characteristics and diversity of NEETs.

Some young people face particular difficulties in accessing employment: for example, those who have a disability or other health problem are 40% more likely of becoming NEET than others. A policy of active inclusion is seen as the most appropriate for addressing these difficulties. Eurofound has analysed active inclusion policy for young people with disabilities or health problems in 11 EU Member States.

Youth dimension in Eurofound’s surveys

The youth dimension is relevant across many areas of Eurofound research, including its surveys.

The Living, working and COVID-19 e-survey, carried out in several rounds in 2020 and 2021, explores the impact of the pandemic across age groups. Topics affecting young people include job loss and insecurity, mental well-being, social exclusion and optimism about the future, experiences with online education, trust in institutions and access to public services. The findings show that young people are again being hard-hit by the social and economic impacts of yet another crisis.   

The European Quality of Life Survey (EQLS) 2016 found important differences between age groups in relation to quality of life, social inclusion, the quality of society and access to public services. EQLS data have also been used to compile a policy brief on the social situation of young people in Europe.

The European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS) 2010 revealed that some aspects of the working conditions of young workers (under 25) differ considerably from those of older workers. Data from the EWCS 2015 have shown that the skills gap between younger and older workers is gradually closing.

Eurofound’s COVID-19 survey used various questions from the EQLS and EWCS, adapting them where necessary for the purpose of the survey.

Key outputs

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Following a long recovery from the economic crisis (2007–2013), young people in the EU proved to be more vulnerable to the effects of the restrictions put in place to slow...

9 Samhain 2021
Publication
Research report
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The exponential growth of COVID-19 cases across Europe this autumn has quickly erased hopes that the virus had been contained and confirmed the surge of another wave of the pandemic...

Blog
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From 11:00 IST (12:00 CET) to 12:00 IST (13:00 CET) on 23 October 2020, Eurofound ran a webinar jointly with the European Parliament Liaison Office, Dublin and European Parliament Liaison...


Event
Other type of event

EU context

Youth employment and issues affecting young people remain high on the EU’s policy agenda and there is strong concern that young people will be among the main victims of the social and economic impacts of the COVID-19 crisis. Having already paid the highest toll of the previous recession, to avoid history repeating itself the European Commission has proposed a reinforced Youth Guarantee as a concrete policy instrument to tackle the employment and social consequences of COVID-19. This aims to ensure that all young people under 30 receive a good quality offer of employment, continued education, an apprenticeship or a traineeship within a period of four months of becoming unemployed or leaving formal education.

This initiative will build on previous actions carried out at European level. The Commission’s 2016 Communication ‘Investing in Europe's Youth’ aimed to support young people in the form of a Youth Package. The package supports better opportunities to access employment, via the Youth Guarantee and Youth Employment Initiative launched in 2013, better opportunities through education and training, as well as better opportunities for solidarity, learning mobility and participation.

As part of this effort, the latest EU Youth Strategy (2019–2027), adopted on 26 November 2018, sets out the framework for cooperation with Member States on their youth policies. Activities are grouped into three main areas of action, around the words ‘Engage’, ‘Connect’ and ‘Empower’.

In January 2020, the Commission presented its Communication 'A strong social Europe for just transitions'. This prepared the way for an Action Plan to implement the European Pillar of Social Rights, which reiterates the EU’s commitment to the Youth Guarantee.

As it emerged that young people were among the most vulnerable to the severe social and economic impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic and restrictive measures, on 1 July 2020 the Commission launched a Youth Employment Support package structured around four strands to provide a ‘bridge to jobs’ for the next generation. The Commission put forward a proposal for a Council Recommendation on ‘A Bridge to Jobs – Reinforcing the Youth Guarantee’, to replace the 2013 Recommendation. This initiative links in with the needs of companies to provide the skills needed, particularly for the green and digital transitions. It extends the age range covered by the Youth Guarantee from age 15–24 to 15–29. The package also includes a proposal on vocational education and training, a renewed impetus for apprenticeships and additional measures to support youth employment. 

The European Pillar of Social Rights Action Plan, proposed by the European Commission in March 2021 and followed by a declaration at the Porto Social Summit in May 2021, introduced new, ambitious targets for young people, such as reducing the rate of young people aged 15–29 who are not in employment, education or training (NEET) from 12.6% (2019) to 9% by 2030.

Eurofound’s work on youth issues links in with the Commission’s 2019–2024 priority on an economy that works for people and is highly relevant here.

 

Eurofound expert(s)

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Eszter Sandor is a senior research manager in the Social Policies unit at Eurofound. She has expertise in survey methodology and statistical analysis, has worked on the preparation...

Senior research manager,
Social policies research unit
Publications results (58)

The various economic and social shocks of the past decade and a half – most recently the COVID-19 pandemic – have ongoing consequences for the living standards and prospects of Europeans, and sometimes these outcomes have been uneven across age groups. Social policies – such as those in the areas of

19 December 2023

The European Child Guarantee was established in 2021 to ensure that children in need have access to a set of key services. This policy brief analyses trends and disparities in children’s access to early childhood education and care, education, healthcare, nutrition and housing.

21 September 2023

In responding to Russia’s war against Ukraine, the EU activated its Temporary Protection Directive (TPD) for people who fled the country, allowing them to settle in the EU and to access basic public services and the labour market. By spring 2023, more than 4.5 million people had made use of the TPD

14 June 2023

Unaffordable housing is a matter of great concern in the EU. It leads to homelessness, housing insecurity, financial strain and inadequate housing. It also prevents young people from leaving their family home. These problems affect people’s health and well-being, embody unequal living conditions and

30 May 2023

The Living, working and COVID-19 survey, first launched by Eurofound in early 2020, aims to capture the wide-ranging impact of the pandemic on the work and lives of EU citizens. The fifth round of the Eurofound survey, which was implemented in spring 2022, also sheds light on a new uncertain reality

07 December 2022

The fifth round of Eurofound's e-survey, fielded from 25 March to 2 May 2022, sheds light on the social and economic situation of people across Europe two years after COVID-19 was first detected on the European continent. It also explores the reality of living in a new era of uncertainty caused by t

07 July 2022

Following a long recovery from the economic crisis (2007–2013), young people in the EU proved to be more vulnerable to the effects of the restrictions put in place to slow the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic. Young people were more likely than older groups to experience job loss, financial

09 November 2021

The third round of Eurofound's e-survey, fielded in February and March 2021, sheds light on the social and economic situation of people across Europe following nearly a full year of living with COVID-19 restrictions. This report analyses the main findings and tracks ongoing developments and trends a

10 May 2021

This report presents the findings of the Living, working and COVID-19 e-survey, carried out by Eurofound to capture the far-reaching implications of the pandemic for the way people live and work across Europe. The survey was fielded online.

28 September 2020

This report summarises out-of-school care (OSC) in the EU and examines related issues, including take-up of OSC, barriers and policy solutions. The report uses information gathered by the Network of Eurofound Correspondents, data from the European Working Conditions Survey 2015 (EWCS 2015), the Euro

03 April 2020

Online resources results (36)
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In this episode of Eurofound Talks, we speak with Daphne Ahrendt, expert on Eurofound’s unique Living, working and COVID-19 e-survey, on these very issues. As Daphne explains, the latest round of the survey reveals many insights that could help policymakers respond to the extraordinary circumstances

11 Iúil 2022
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New day, new data highlighting the devastating impact of COVID-19 on young people across the European Union – most recently Eurofound’s unique pan-European Living, working and COVID-19 e-survey. We know this has taken an unprecedented toll on young people particularly – their mental well-being, thei

16 Nollaig 2021
Podcast

Young people and long-term unemployed – Remaining challenges in the labour market Informal Meeting of Employment, Social Policy, Health and Consumer Affairs Council (EPSCO) - Employment & Social Policy, 17-18 April 2018, Sofia, Bulgaria Presentation by Juan Menéndez-Valdés, Director, Eurofound

17 Aibreán 2018

France: Government unveils plans for reform of apprenticeship system

The French government introduced a plan for the wide-scale reform of apprenticeship programmes in February 2018 that gives professional organisations a greater role in defining the content and number of training courses. The social partners, particularly employers, have welcomed the reform, which is

Netherlands: Latest working life developments – Q2 2017

Increase in employment figures and childcare facilities, a rise in the number of accidents in the workplace, initiatives to boost youth employment and new collective agreements are the main topics of interest in this article. This country update reports on the latest developments in working life in

Estonia: Latest working life developments – Q2 2017

A collective agreement for the healthcare sector, the start of negotiations on the minimum wage, changes in employment regulations for minors and a plan to close the gender pay gap are the main topics of interest in this article. This country update reports on the latest developments in working life

Italy: Latest working life developments – Q2 2017

Changes to state employment, a new youth traineeship framework and an agreement to halt the off-shoring of call centres are the main topics of interest in this article. This country update reports on the latest developments in working life in Italy in the second quarter of 2017.

Croatia: Latest working life developments – Q2 2017

Emergency legislation to prevent the collapse of large companies, help for posted workers, Croatia’s slow post-transition economic progress and the retention of young and skilled labour are the main topics of interest in this article. This country update reports on the latest developments in working

Belgium: Latest working life developments – Q3 2016

The definition of hazardous jobs, measures to promote youth employment, a series of collective redundancies and proposals to alter wage formation are the main topics of interest in this article. This country update reports on the latest developments in working life in Belgium in the third quarter of


Blogs results (9)
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Today is Europe Day, and one hundred young people from Ireland and Ukraine will be marking the event at Eurofound, in peaceful south Dublin. Europe Day has traditionally been seen as a celebration of peace and unity in Europe, but, unfortunately, it must be marked differently this year. Europe Day

9 Bealtaine 2022
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We need to study and understand the blow Europe’s youth have suffered from the COVID-19 pandemic, in order to adjust recovery and resilience measures to their needs: without prioritising young people in the present, we have little hope for the future.

3 Nollaig 2021
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On 9 May, the Conference on the Future of Europe will get underway. Floated well before the COVID-19 outbreak, its timing in the wake of the seismic shifts precipitated by the pandemic, and its implementation alongside the European Pillar of Social Rights Action Plan, means that the outcomes could

4 Bealtaine 2021
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The exponential growth of COVID-19 cases across Europe this autumn has quickly erased hopes that the virus had been contained and confirmed the surge of another wave of the pandemic. With Member States now implementing new restrictive measures for the second time since March in an attempt to control

23 Deireadh Fómhair 2020
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While we now know that the idea that ‘COVID-19 only affects older people’ is fake news, the first weeks of the pandemic have shown that young people are in general more resilient than older people to the disease. But are they also more resilient to its social and economic impacts?

18 Bealtaine 2020
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The impact of COVID-19 continues to create chaos in people’s lives across Europe and the world. The economy is heading towards another major dip, and a sense of general insecurity pervades. The daunting challenges confronting health services and projections on the long-term impact of the crisis

12 Bealtaine 2020
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Europe has weathered a number of storms in recent years, yet despite the Great Recession, the migration crisis and the challenges posed by Brexit, the EU continues on a stable path to economic recovery, closer cooperation and cohesion. However, the legacy of the crisis lives on in the number of

3 Bealtaine 2018
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In this blog, originally posted in Social Europe, Massimiliano Mascherini looks at the enduring issue of long-term unemployment among young people. Despite considerable improvement in the labour market participation of youth in recent years, the legacy of the crisis is still visible in the

17 Aibreán 2018
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A key priority for EU policy makers is to combat high levels of youth unemployment. Supporting young people to start a new business is increasingly regarded as a way to achieve this goal. And yet the understanding of what drives the success and failure of youth entrepreneurship policies remains

18 Aibreán 2016
Upcoming publications results (1)

Since the COVID-19 pandemic, young Europeans face many obstacles in their path to independence, including securing employment, the rise in cost of living and the inability to leave the family home. This report builds on recent Eurofound survey data to explore the lives of young people in the EU.

April 2024
Forthcoming
Publication
Research report
Data results (11)

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