Online platform work in the European Union: Implications for working conditions and access to information

The current report analyses the working conditions and information needs of online platform workers based on a large-scale survey conducted by the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions (Eurofound) and the European Labour Authority (ELA) across 15 EU Member States. Unlike most existing research, which focuses predominantly on on-location platform work where the actual service delivery takes place in a specific physical location, this survey targets platform workers who provide services online, addressing a significant gap in the empirical and policy literature on this growing segment of the platform economy.

Existing representative surveys consistently estimate the platform work phenomenon to comprise 2–5 % of EU employment, on a similar scale to temporary agency work. A 2022 pilot survey on digital platform employment by the statistical office of the European Union (Eurostat) found that 3 % of people aged 15–64 years had performed digital platform work in the previous 12 months (Eurostat, 2023). Furthermore, the Joint Research Centre’s 2024–2025 Analysis on Impacts of Artificial Intelligence and Algorithmic Management in the Workplace (AIM-WORK) survey estimated that 2.7 % of respondents had received in the 12 months prior to the interview some income from platforms, with about 20 % of platform workers engaging in platform work as their main job (Gonzalez Vazquez et al., 2025). Along similar lines, the 2025 OSH Pulse survey found that 3 % of workers earned most of their income through digital labour platforms, while an additional 2 % earned at least part of their income by working through a digital platform (EU-OSHA, 2025).

With reliable prevalence data already established by existing sources, this Eurofound–ELA survey employs a convenience sampling strategy targeting 300 to 500 platform workers per Member State to allow for a robust analysis of working conditions. Furthermore, the survey prioritises gathering detailed information about the demographics, working conditions and information needs of online platform workers, as well as their use of algorithmic management systems, with a focus on having a sufficiently large sample that allows for comparisons.

Since 2024, policy responses to platform work have intensified at both the EU and national levels, mainly through the adoption of the EU directive on improving working conditions in platform work (Directive (EU) 2024/2831). The directive establishes a presumption of employment in accordance with national law and based on facts indicating direction and control. It also introduces labour rights related to algorithmic management systems and strengthens transparency and enforcement through reporting obligations for platform operators.

• Online platform workers are predominantly male and of prime working age and have remarkably high educational attainment. This challenges stereotypes of platform work as a young person’s domain and raises questions about overqualification, suggesting that highly educated workers turn to platforms potentially owing to limited local labour market opportunities.

• Online platform work is dominated by high-skilled professional services rather than microtasks, with gender-based patterns mirroring those of traditional labour markets. Men are concentrated in technical fields while women are over-represented in teaching, writing and translation tasks.

• The workers surveyed are split almost evenly between those treating online platform work as a source of supplemental income and those engaging in it as their primary or sole occupation. This has critical social protection implications, with those using online platform work as a side-earner likely to access benefits through their main jobs, while those dependent on online platform work face vulnerability regarding social security coverage, typically being classified as self-employed.

• Annual income derived from online platform work averages EUR 20 000 but varies significantly by Member State and task.

• Higher educational attainment is associated with higher income. By contrast, being foreign-born is significantly associated with lower earnings (approximately EUR 7 000 less per year compared with being native-born).

• Working time reveals structural precarity: unpaid hours burden all online platform workers, with workers who rely on platform work as a side income reporting disproportionately high unpaid time despite fewer paid hours.

• Just over half of respondents report that their skills match the demands of their work; one quarter lack required skills and one fifth could handle more demanding tasks.

• Contrary to expectations, the highest levels of skill underutilisation occur in business consulting and online teaching rather than in routine microtasks. This indicates that platform work can lead to the underuse of skills, even in tasks usually seen as complex, as tasks are often more narrowly defined than in traditional employment.

• Software development is associated with the most severe trade-offs: despite being associated with high earnings and scoring above average in cognitive complexity, software development also scores high on algorithmic routine and has the worst outcomes for both social and physical environments.

• Four algorithmic management regimes exist in online platform work: comprehensive control (affecting 43 % of the workforce, characterised by intensive surveillance, gamification, restricted autonomy and performance discipline); gamified assignment (affecting 29 % of the workforce, characterised by competitive rankings with moderate surveillance); freelance surveillance (affecting 14 % of the workforce, characterised by task choice but intensive monitoring); and low control (affecting 14 % of the workforce, characterised by minimal monitoring and high autonomy).

• Workers generally demonstrate good knowledge of platform-specific information, but substantial gaps remain regarding work-related rights, with significant variation across countries.

• Improve working conditions. Working time quality and physical and social environments across online platform work should be addressed to improve the overall working conditions and meet the information needs of online platform workers. In transposing the Platform Work Directive, Member States should ensure that online platform workers have effective access to occupational safety and health protections, especially in relation to unpaid labour time and work intensity.

• Enhance transparency and worker autonomy in algorithmic management practices. Member States should implement robust transparency requirements for algorithmic systems and strengthen workers’ capacity to challenge automated decisions.

• Ensure fair compensation, while recognising the role of online labour platforms in providing labour market access and income-generating opportunities. For many workers, online labour platforms offer valuable labour market access: 32 % of respondents who are exclusive platform workers are homemakers balancing care responsibilities, 20 % are students and 16 % are unemployed, suggesting that platforms facilitate economic participation for groups facing barriers in traditional labour markets.

• Strengthen requirements to provide information regarding work-related rights. Platforms successfully deliver operational information relevant for the performance of services, but information about workers’ statutory entitlements, particularly social security contributions and social protection, is less accessible and so should be addressed.

• Address structural disparities between countries in information infrastructure and institutional support. Targeted information campaigns and strengthened institutional coordination could reach online platform workers and contribute to better access to information.