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This article is based on analysis of recent figures from the INE on the organisation and duration of working time. The data reveal that, while entrepreneurs of large firms work longer hours, they have greater autonomy in the management of their time and the content of their work than small business owners, and far greater autonomy than employees.
The National Institute of Statistics (Instituto Nacional de Estadística, INE) has recently developed a 'Specific Module of Analysis', based on the Survey of the Active Population ('Encuesta de Población Activa', EPA), dealing with the organisation and duration of working time ('Módulo especial sobre organización y duración de la jornada laboral'). This survey provides relevant information on autonomy and control regarding the management of working time (ES0404205F).
The average working week of a full-time Spanish worker increased from 37.31 hours in 2000 to 37.34 hours in 2004, according to figures of the INE-EPA. In the EU15, the average working week is 41.7 hours, and in the EU 25, it is 41.9 hours. Nevertheless, Spain is following the general European tendency to increase working time.
The working time recorded in the statistics may be lower than the real figure, because there is little control and recognition of overtime in the country. The overtime detected is an average of 3.7 hours per week, of which only 70% is paid. Women are paid for a smaller proportion of the overtime they work. Though it is impossible to estimate, it is quite common in Spain for overtime to be unrecognised or to be paid through the underground economy (ES0406209T), so it does not figure in the accounts.
| Both sexes | Worked (A) | 3.7 |
| Paid (B) | 2.6 | |
| % of paid overtime | 69.7 | |
| Men | Worked (A) | 3.7 |
| Paid (B) | 2.8 | |
| % of paid overtime | 75 | |
| Women | Worked (A) | 3.7 |
| Paid (B) | 1.9 | |
| % of paid overtime | 52.2 |
Source: INE-EPA. Special Module 2004. Organisation and duration of working time ('Módulo especial 2004. Organización y duración de la jornada laboral').
There seems to be a general tendency towards an increase in atypical working hours, as experienced by an increasing percentage of workers in Europe in recent years.
There is a general increase in working on Saturdays, and an increase in shift work in the new Member States.
| . | Saturdays | Sundays | Shift work | Night work | ||||
| 2000 | 2004 | 2000 | 2004 | 2000 | 2004 | 2000 | 2004 | |
| EU25 | 14.3 | 20.58 | 5.95 | 9.58 | 6.18 | 13.37 | 3.96 | 5.44 |
| EU15 | 16.08 | 20.42 | 6.52 | 9.08 | 6.58 | 11.8 | 4.4 | 5.3 |
Source: Eurostat
As many as 43.18% of employees in Spain work atypical hours. Of these, 88% claim that they are able to reconcile work with family life - which means that 12% are unable to do so. This is particularly the case for men.
| . | Absolute values in thousands | Percentages | ||||
| Total | Yes | No | Total | Yes | No | |
| Both sexes | 6,487.30 | 5,706.50 | 780.8 | 100 | 88 | 12 |
| Men | 3,826.20 | 3,347.40 | 478.8 | 100 | 87.5 | 12.5 |
| Women | 2,661.10 | 2,359.10 | 302 | 100 | 88.6 | 11.4 |
Taking into account employees who work on demand or in a team with shift work, or those who habitually work Saturdays, Sundays, evenings or nights
Source: INE-EPA. Special Module 2004. Organisation and duration of working time ('Módulo especial 2004. Organización y duración de la jornada laboral').
The amount of shift work in Spain is also considerably higher than the European average, with 16.92% of employees working shifts, according to the EPA (fourth quarter of 2004). The proportion is far higher in the service sector. The most common shift system in manufacturing is that of variable shifts from Monday to Friday, in order to take full advantage of the installed production capacity.
| Units: employees | Thousands | Percentage | ||||
| % | Agri- culture | Manu-facturing | Con- struction | Services | ||
| Total | 2,541.90 | 100 | 0.8 | 27.6 | 2 | 69.6 |
| Assigned to a fixed shift | 839 | 33.01 | 0.8 | 22.4 | 4.1 | 72.7 |
| Working morning, afternoon and night shifts, seven days a week | 494 | 19.43 | 0.4 | 25 | 0.7 | 74 |
| Working morning, afternoon and night shifts, Monday to Friday | 154.2 | 6.07 | 0.3 | 82.1 | 0.9 | 16.7 |
| Working morning and afternoon shifts, Monday to Friday | 278.2 | 10.94 | 0.3 | 65.9 | 0.9 | 32.9 |
| Working day and night shifts, Monday to Friday (clear separation between the two types of shift) | 9.4 | 0.37 | .. | 44.4 | 4.4 | 51.3 |
| Other types of shift | 767.1 | 30.18 | 1.4 | 10 | 1.1 | 87.4 |
Source: INE-EPA. Special Module 2004. Organisation and duration of working time ('Módulo especial 2004. Organización y duración de la jornada laboral').
In the Spanish labour system, work organisation - including working time - is the responsibility of employers within the legal limits. The employers who were consulted for the study confirm this. In the vast majority of cases, working time is established by the employers, and is rarely agreed or established by workers.
| 2004 | Thousands | Percentages | ||
| Total | Employers | Workers in mutual agreement with the employer | Workers | |
| Both sexes | 14,290.8 | 93 | 5.7 | 1.3 |
| Men | 8,439.9 | 93.7 | 5 | 1.3 |
| Women | 5,850.9 | 91.9 | 6.8 | 1.3 |
Source: INE-EPA. Special Module 2004. Organisation and duration of working time ('Módulo especial 2004. Organización y duración de la jornada laboral').
The same situation can be seen in the times of starting and stopping work. In Spain, flexible systems of starting and stopping work appear to be the exception, except in agriculture in which working hours depend on the climate and season. The strictest sectors in this regard are construction and manufacturing.
| 2004 | Thousands | Percentages | |
| Fixed starting and stopping times | Other | ||
| Both sexes | |||
| Total | 13,290.4 | 91.1 | 8.9 |
| Agriculture | 425.6 | 82.9 | 17.1 |
| Industry | 2,646.7 | 94.4 | 5.6 |
| Construction | 1,693.4 | 95.3 | 4.7 |
| Services | 8,524.7 | 89.6 | 10.4 |
| Men | |||
| Total | 7,911.1 | 90.2 | 9.8 |
| Women | |||
| Total | 5,379.3 | 92.4 | 7.6 |
Source: INE-EPA. Special Module 2004. Organisation and duration of working time ('Módulo especial 2004. Organización y duración de la jornada laboral').
Studies of this subject tend to state that employers work longer hours than employees, but they have greater autonomy to manage their working time (and much of the overtime they do is not recorded officially).
| Average total | 39.6 |
| Self-employed workers: total | 45.2 |
| Self-employed workers: employers | 47.2 |
| Self-employed workers: employers without employees, or independent workers | 45.3 |
| Self-employed workers: members of cooperatives | 41.4 |
| Self-employed workers: helping in family business | 37.2 |
| Employees: total | 38.4 |
| Employees: public sector | 36.6 |
| Employees: private sector | 38.9 |
| Other situations | 33.1 |
Source: EPA- INE
The latest figures confirm this view, showing that 85% of employers decide both their working time and the content of their work. However, this degree of autonomy is not so high among small business owners, and it is observed that 38.72% of the members of cooperatives are not autonomous in this respect.
| . | Thousands | Decide their work but not their working hours | Decide their working hours but not their work | Decide both | Do not decide their working hours or their work |
| Total | 2,928.7 | 9.95 | 1.56 | 84.98 | 3.51 |
| Employers | 959.1 | 10.78 | 1.07 | 87.18 | 0.97 |
| Employers without employees, or independent workers | 1,882.3 | 9.55 | 1.81 | 85.46 | 3.18 |
| Members of cooperatives | 87.3 | 9.39 | 1.6 | 50.29 | 38.72 |
Source: INE-EPA. Special Module 2004. Organisation and duration of working time.
With regard to small employers, another sign of dependence that could be called 'mercantile dependence' is the fact that 14.3% work for a single company or customer. This shows that this segment of the working population, subject to market competition, have less economic autonomy and therefore less autonomy in the management of their working time.
| . | Total | Percentages | |
| Work for a single company or customer | Work for more than one company or customer | ||
| Total | 2,616.50 | 14.3 | 85.7 |
| Employers | 741.2 | 10.4 | 89.6 |
| Employers without employees, or independent workers | 1,829.90 | 15.6 | 84.4 |
| Members of cooperatives | 45.4 | 22.5 | 77.5 |
Source: INE-EPA. Special Module 2004. Organisation and duration of working time ('Módulo especial 2004. Organización y duración de la jornada laboral').
The asymmetry between employers and employees in the labour relationship is also reflected in the autonomy they enjoy in managing their working time. Although employers - particularly those with large companies - work longer hours, they have greater freedom to manage their time and the content of their work, whereas employees enjoy less autonomy. Furthermore, in recent years, there has been a tendency to adapt working time to production needs, making it more difficult for workers to achieve an effective work-life balance (ES0507204F). (Daniel Albarracín, CIREM Foundation).