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Gender equality

Gender equality refers to equality between women and men with respect to their rights, treatment, responsibilities, opportunities, and economic and social achievements. Gender equality is achieved when men and women have the same rights, responsibilities and opportunities across all sections of society and when the different interests, needs and priorities of men and women are equally valued.

Topic

Recent updates

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In this special episode of Eurofound Talks for International Women's Day 2024, Mary McCaughey speaks with Eurofound researchers Carlos Vacas and Barbara Gerstenberger about the gender pay and employment gaps...

Podcast

Policy pointers

Based on Eurofound's work on this topic, a number of policy pointers can be suggested. 

COVID-19 and gender equality

  • The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the labour market was remarkably gender-neutral at EU level, partly reflecting women’s overrepresentation in sectors that were shut down, but also their concentration in teleworkable jobs and essential sectors. However, research findings show that during the COVID-19 crisis, job loss for women has been most prevalent among the lowest-paid workers, while job loss for men has been more evenly distributed.
  • Work–life conflicts increased dramatically during the COVID-19 pandemic, particularly among teleworking mothers of young children. As Europe emerges from the pandemic, policymakers need to take note of that the fact that voluntary, flexible work arrangements – most likely to be adopted by women – can also mean increased unpaid workload and lower visibility in the workplace, with long-term consequences for career progression, pay and pensions. 
  • The COVID-19 crisis has highlighted the critical role of care services in supporting women’s labour market participation, financial security and overall well-being. It is essential that Member States support the provision of good-quality, accessible and affordable care services in all areas, while addressing staff shortages and improving the working conditions in these sectors. 
  • The post-pandemic recovery is an opportunity to bring about real change in gender norms, behaviours, and policy innovation. It will be crucial for policymakers, including social partners, to prioritise gender issues while continuing to monitor and evaluate progress.

Employment

  • Two out of three net new jobs in the EU over the last two decades have been taken up by women and this increase has been strongest among 30 to 49-year-olds and older women aged 50+.
  • The gender employment gap in the EU continues to narrow. Around 46% of EU workers are women compared to 40% a generation ago. However, the gender employment gap has stagnated in recent years and stood at 10.8 percentage points in 2021, costing the EU €320 billion annually. COVID-19 measures have disproportionately affected low-paying service sectors with a majority of female workers, forcing more women out of the labour market. 
  • Women continue to be significantly overrepresented in low-paying jobs, but female employment has been growing faster than male employment in the highest-paying jobs, which are those accounting for the top 20% of employment by average wage. 

Wages

  • Women are overrepresented among the low-paid and minimum wage earners in nearly all EU Member States.
  • The gender pay gap is highest in well-paid jobs. This is a common pattern across Member States and occurs despite younger women increasingly outperforming younger men in educational attainment. 
  • Variable forms of pay, such as shares in the company or payments based on company performance, are becoming more common. These pay components are increasing more rapidly among men than women which may widen the gender pay gap (at 13% in 2020). 
  • Simpler versions of gender pay reporting do not pose major obstacles for companies. But reporting and auditing requirements become more meaningful when they include more complex and thorough data and analysis, including various components of pay beyond basic salaries and extra information, such as length of working experience or tenure of the employees.

Working conditions

  • Gender inequalities in labour markets, employment and at work stretch well beyond labour market segmentation and gender pay gaps, and lie also within the working conditions and job quality that women and men experience in their jobs across countries, sectors and occupations.
  • Men report higher levels of quantitative demands at work, whereas women are much more likely to report exposure to emotional demands, such as handling angry clients, patients or pupils, or being in situations that are emotionally disturbing.

Quality of life

  • Women and men have similar subjective well-being across Europe. However, when controlling for other factors (especially income), women have higher life satisfaction than men, and it is presumed that lower average income contributes to a reduction in women’s average well-being.
  • Most nuclear families are dual-earning and have the most unbalanced allocation of unpaid work: women do the most housework, and many have problems with work–life balance.
  • Women are twice as likely to provide long-term care than men every day. The difference is highest at age 50–64.
  • As well as the clear economic objective to close the gender employment gap, there is also a social imperative due to its implications for women’s lives, including their financial security and quality of life. 
    o    Publication: Women and labour market equality: Has COVID-19 rolled back recent gains?

Eurofound research

Eurofound adopts a gender mainstreaming approach systematically in its research. Where possible and relevant, research findings, including surveys and policy analyses, disaggregate data by gender. Other research projects provide specific analysis relevant to gender equality. The research covers a wider variety of topics from a gender perspective, such as pay and income, minimum wage, care, employment participation, leave, skills and training, work organisation, job quality, working time, work–life balance and social cohesion and convergence, including in pan-European surveys and regular reporting at national level.

Listen to or watch a recording of our International Women's Day 2023 podcast on the work–life challenges of women and men. 

COVID-19 and gender equality

The COVID-19 pandemic risks rolling back years of progress on gender equality. Eurofound’s e-survey Living, working and COVID-19 offers an insight into the impact of the pandemic on the lives of EU citizens. Conducted in five rounds during 2020, 2021 and 2022, it allows for comparison of the challenges that arose during the different stages of living through the pandemic. Findings show that COVID-19 has impacted gender equality at home. The pandemic has significantly increased the number of teleworkers in Europe, and women were more likely to work from home during the pandemic than men. Furthermore, the closure of schools and childcare facilities during confinement disproportionately impacted women, who generally assumed greater domestic and care responsibilities.

The findings also reveal a general deterioration of work–life balance among workers in the EU with more women and men reporting work–life conflicts, but women who have to telework and care for small children appear to be struggling most. The percentage of women reporting difficulties was higher in April 2020 than in previous Eurofound surveys. Women are also reporting greater financial strain than men during the pandemic. The COVID-19 survey questionnaire drew on questions used in Eurofound’s pan-European surveys, the European Quality of Life Survey (EQLS) and the European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS).

Eurofound's EU PolicyWatch database collates and maps the national-level policy responses across Europe to the COVID-19 crisis, the war in Ukraine and rising inflation. Some of these measures have a gender dimension.

Employment and gender 

Eurofound research explores the characteristics and consequences of gender gaps in labour market participation, as well as policies and measures aimed at fostering female labour market participation. Women’s employment and participation rates are still lower than those of men in almost all EU Member States. Eurofound has estimated the cost of this gender employment gap in the EU at more than €320 billion in 2018. Although the cost of the gap is falling, the economic loss is still significantly high. Research also looks at upward convergence in the gender employment gap, assessing which are the best and worst-performing Member States in this regard. 

The European Jobs Monitor (EJM) tracks structural change in European labour markets in terms of occupation and sector, giving a qualitative assessment of these shifts using various proxies of job quality. This monitoring includes analysis of patterns of employment change by gender and by job-wage quintile, as well as labour market segregation. 

Wages and gender

Eurofound research covers a range of topics linking wages and gender, such as variable pay, performance-related pay, low pay and the gender pay gap. Survey research looks at earnings as one of seven indicators of job quality for men and women at work. On minimum wages, an annual review monitors the level of minimum wages across Europe, also measuring coverage rates of workers by gender in 2019 and the link with the gender pay gap. Furthermore, the EJM analyses the extent to which different jobs, occupations and sectors contribute to the gender pay gap. This will be useful for the interpretation of the Commission’s social scoreboard’s indicator on the gender pay gap and for the implementation of the gender-equality principle of the European Pillar of Social Rights.

Eurofound reviewed the first experiences of countries with gender pay transparency measures in 2018. At the Commission’s request, Eurofound has initiated an ad hoc study on measures to promote gender pay transparency in companies, looking at how much they cost and whether companies can see any opportunities. This will feed into the Commission’s impact assessment.

Working conditions and gender

Eurofound’s European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS) covers a range of aspects of working conditions from a gender perspective. In recent questionnaires, gender mainstreaming has been an important topic. The survey monitors occupational, sectoral, time and pay gaps, as well as working time patterns, work–life balance, violence and harassment at work, and health and well-being, including what all this means for sustainable work. The European Working Conditions Telephone Survey (EWCTS) 2021 analysed the multiple dimensions of job quality, comparing the situation in the Member States also by gender.

EWCS analysis will help to inform policies aimed at closing gender gaps in the area of job and employment quality. The knowledge provided is relevant for the principle of gender equality and initiatives to improve work–life balance, as well as those included in the context of the European Pillar of Social Rights and implementation of the European Gender Equality Strategy.

Research also looks at the experience of women in management roles and how their underrepresentation in management can be addressed. It analyses the job quality of both male and female managers, and the impact a management job has on personal life.

Other research analyses the level of female entrepreneurship in Europe and the market gap when it comes to investing in women-led enterprises. It examines the financial hurdles facing female entrepreneurs and the use of private or public funds to invest in this group. In addition, it investigates the prevalence of public finance tools and public support schemes that effectively remove barriers and enable women to become competent entrepreneurs.

The higher participation of women in the labour market has prompted changes in the way European social partner organisations tackle gender issues. Research has also assessed the role of the EU social partners in advancing gender equality, exploring actions taken within the different national frameworks of industrial relations and against the ranking of Member States on EIGE’s Gender Equality Index.

Moreover, Eurofound has worked on a joint project with the International Labour Organization (ILO) to look at working conditions in a global perspective. It expands on gender gaps across the world (1.2 billion workers) and provides evidence on the gendered differences in job quality and on higher risk of women to be exposed to sexual violence; the latter is also identified in EWCS 2015.  

Quality of life and gender

The European Quality of Life Survey (EQLS) also covers the gender dimension, in relation to issues such as employment, income, risk of poverty, household composition and well-being, education, family and care responsibilities, health and work–life balance.

Both the EWCS and EQLS data contribute to the policy debate on reconciliation issues and work–life balance for men and women. The EQLS looks at the difference between men and women in their levels of life satisfaction or happiness. The gendered division of unpaid work, in relation to for example childcare or caring for elderly relatives, is also covered in the EQLS.

Research on patterns of social mobility for men and women across the EU looks at barriers to equal opportunities and policies to promote it. It highlights the increasingly important gendered patterns of social mobility in different countries.  

Eurofound collaboration with EIGE

Eurofound cooperates with the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) on gender-related topics. Eurofound is a key data provider for EIGE’s Gender Equality Index and is involved in the working group for this indicator. Following on for a number of collaborations in 2022, other areas for cooperation between the two Agencies in 2023 include research related to the impact of the transition to a carbon neutral economy, as well as that on care, the working life of essential workers, the impact of the war against Ukraine from a gender perspective and in relation to integration of refugees, the socioeconomic impact of COVID-19 on women and gender equality, and platform work.  

EU context

Gender equality is a core value of the EU, a fundamental right, a critical component of economic growth and a key principle of the European Pillar of Social Rights. In this light, the EU has been making progress in the gender equality field over the past decades, albeit at a slow pace. The Gender Equality Index score for the EU in 2023 is 70.2 points out of 100, surpassing 70 points for the first time. This is an improvement of 1.6 points since the 2022 edition and the highest year-on-year increase since 2013. Two decades into the 21st century, gender inequalities persist in many areas, including in employment, working conditions and quality of life. As part of the European Commission’s work programme, gender equality remains an important policy priority, with the goal being to roll out the European Gender Equality Strategy. 

On 5 March 2020, the Commission launched a new Gender Equality Strategy 2020–2025. The Strategy’s main topics are: violence against women; pay transparency and the gender pay gap; gender balance on company boards; and work–life balance. It is also guided by the vision of ‘a Europe where women and men are free to pursue their chosen path in life, where they have equal opportunities to thrive, and where they can equally participate in and lead our European society’.  As one of the first deliverables of the Strategy, the Commission presented a proposal for a pay transparency directive on 4 March 2021, which was backed by the European Parliament on 5 April 2022. The Parliament, EU Council and Commission reached a provisional agreement on the directive on 30 November 2022. The Council adopted the directive on 24 April 2023.

In October 2023, the European Parliament holds its fourth European Gender Equality Week, at the initiative of the Women’s Rights and Gender Equality Committee (FEMM). During the week, the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) also publishes the findings of its Gender Equality Index 2023.

The COVID-19 pandemic has had vast implications on health, well-being, quality of life, the labour market and the economy. It has also had a multifaceted impact on gender equality at work and at home. Promoting gender equality is at the heart of the EU policy response to the crisis, in line with the Gender Equality Strategy. 

Eurofound’s work on gender equality links in with the Commission’s 2019–2024 priorities on an economy that works for people and a new push for European democracy. Eurofound has contributed in the recent past to the EU initiative on work–life balance and on the pay transparency initiative.

Key outputs

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The COVID-19 pandemic has accentuated inequalities in many dimensions of European societies, including inequalities between women and men in several key domains. This report looks at gender inequalities that existed...

13 October 2022
Publication
Research report

Eurofound expert(s)

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Carlos Vacas Soriano is a research manager in the Employment unit at Eurofound. He works on topics related to wage and income inequalities, minimum wages, low pay, job quality...

Research manager,
Employment research unit
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​Martina Bisello is a research manager in the Employment unit at Eurofound. Her research interests include gender gaps in the labour market, occupational change and the impact of...

Research manager,
Employment research unit
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Sanna Nivakoski is a research officer in the Social Policies unit at Eurofound. Before joining Eurofound in 2021, she worked as a post-doctoral researcher at University College...

Research officer,
Social policies research unit
Publications results (114)

The rise of the platform economy during the last decade is one of the main disrupting forces for European labour markets. While standard employment remains the norm, platforms are expanding their reach and diversifying into novel business models. In doing so, they are also attracting an increasing

16 May 2023

The COVID-19 pandemic had varying impacts on social groups, depending on existing disadvantages, and it was widely believed that it triggered a rise in inequalities across different areas of life. Using indicators from the EU’s Multidimensional Inequality Monitoring Framework (MIMF), this report

24 January 2023

European labour markets have recovered strongly from COVID-19. By the end of 2021, little more than 18 months after the start of the pandemic, employment rates in the EU were almost at pre-crisis levels. This report summarises labour market developments in 2020 and 2021 using quarterly data from the

20 October 2022

The COVID-19 pandemic has accentuated inequalities in many dimensions of European societies, including inequalities between women and men in several key domains. This report looks at gender inequalities that existed prior to the COVID-19 crisis and describes in what ways the pandemic has impacted on

13 October 2022

The European Union Agencies Network on Scientific Advice (EU-ANSA) consists of technical and regulatory agencies that provide scientific advice to EU policymakers. This report demonstrates how EU-ANSA member Agencies are addressing the socioeconomic effects of sustainable development. It is based on

05 January 2022

One of the most striking developments of the last half-century has been the huge rise in the labour market participation of women. Two out of every three net new jobs created over the last two decades in the EU were taken by women. At the same time, sharply rising employment rates among older

14 December 2021

Despite the increasing participation of women in the labour market and a higher share of women than men being hired into well-paid jobs in recent years, a gender pay gap exists across all EU Member States. Pay differentials between women and men have been shown to be significantly influenced by the

14 December 2021

Over the last decade, the EU has made slow progress towards gender equality. As achievements in gender equality vary considerably by Member State, it is important to understand the evolution of disparities between the Member States and the implications this has for upward economic and social

15 July 2021

This flagship report summarises the key findings of Eurofound’s research on working conditions conducted over the programming period 2017–2020. It maps the progress achieved since 2000 in improving working conditions and examines whether all workers have benefited equally from positive change. It

26 February 2021

Closing gender gaps in the labour market by achieving the equal participation of women is among the key objectives of the new Gender Equality Strategy 2020–2025. Despite significant progress in reducing the gender employment gap, it has stagnated over the past few years. Moreover, segregation in

09 December 2020

Online resources results (440)

In this special episode of Eurofound Talks for International Women's Day 2024, Mary McCaughey speaks with Eurofound researchers Carlos Vacas and Barbara Gerstenberger about the gender pay and employment gaps in Europe.

4 March 2024

In this episode of Eurofound Talks, recorded for International Women's Day 2023, Mary McCaughey speaks with Eurofound Working Life researchers Jorge Cabrita and Viginta Ivaškaitė-Tamošiūnė about how, when paid and unpaid work are combined, women do eight full-time weeks more work than men per year

8 March 2023
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Workers want to telework but long working hours, isolation and inadequate equipment must be tackled

The COVID-19 pandemic prompted a surge in telework, with dramatic increases in the number of employees working from home (teleworking) in many European countries. What for many employees started out as a mandatory move seems to have transformed into a preference among the majority for part-time or

Living, working and COVID-19: Impact on gender equality 11 March 2021, European Economic and Social Committee (EESC) virtual meeting Presentation by Maria Jepsen, Acting Executive Director, Eurofound

22 March 2021
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Member States are dawdling on gender pay transparency

The gender pay gap in gross hourly earnings in the EU was 14.8% in 2018. To help combat discriminatory pay practices by employers, the European Commission recommended in 2014 the introduction of pay transparency measures in all Member States. But more than half still have not implemented any such

A modern agenda for work–life balance 16 October 2018, Brussels, Belgium Presentation by Mathijn Wilkens, Research Officer, Christine Aumayr-Pintar, Research Manager, Anna Ludwinek, Research Manager, Eurofound

16 October 2018

Malta: latest working life developments Q2 2018

Concern about the rise in the number of foreign workers and a widening gender pay gap are the main topics of interest in this article. This country update reports on the latest developments in working life in Malta in the second quarter of 2018.

Sweden: latest working life developments Q2 2018

A historic agreement on industrial action regulations and a narrowing gender pay gap are the main topics of interest in this article. This country update reports on the latest developments in working life in Sweden in the second quarter of 2018.

Estonia: latest working life developments Q2 2018

The ending of Estonia’s longest ever strike, the re-establishment of tripartite social dialogue, and changes in legislation to tackle the gender pay gap are the topics of interest in this article. This country update reports on the latest developments in working life in Estonia in the second quarter

Article

Finland: Experiences of pay auditing measures

Studies in 2010 and 2012 of measures brought in by Finland to ensure pay transparency have shown that employers were initially reluctant to close the gender pay gap. The results highlighted the need for improvement in the implementation of pay auditing measures, which led to amendments in the law.


Blogs results (25)

The jury is still out on the question whether men and women are from distinct planets. When it comes to the world of work, however, they are worlds apart.

25 October 2023
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Europe Day is a celebration of unity, solidarity and harmony. While we may not have had much to celebrate this past year, one thing we can be proud of is how Europe has come together in the face of large-scale challenges and threats, showing that solidarity is the key to resilience and resolve.

8 May 2023
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The European Commission declared 2023 as the European Year of Skills, stating ‘Helping people get the right skills for quality jobs and helping companies, in particular small and medium enterprises, address skills shortages in the EU is what this year is all about.’

27 March 2023
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'Women belong in all the places where decisions are made', to borrow from the late Ruth Bader Ginsburg. These decisions are made everywhere and at every level: in the home and at the workplace; in the boardroom and on the shop floor. Which is why it is of such serious concern to see the ongoing deep

8 March 2023
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The dawn of 2022 brought muted optimism to a Europe beginning to emerge from the COVID-19 pandemic, and the progress of vaccination programmes worldwide brought hope. Government and EU support during the pandemic had kept unemployment at bay, averting the widescale collapse of businesses. In step wi

19 December 2022
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While the number of employees earning the minimum wage has increased across Europe over the last decade, spurred by significant minimum wage hikes, a clear gender divide emerges, with minimum wage earners more likely to be women. Minimum wage earners are also more likely to live in materially

26 October 2021
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With its proposed directive on gender pay transparency, the European Commission has significantly bolstered the set of tools for delivering its objectives compared to those presented in its 2014 Recommendation. The proposed portfolio of measures addresses many shortcomings of the instruments that

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On 9 May, the Conference on the Future of Europe will get underway. Floated well before the COVID-19 outbreak, its timing in the wake of the seismic shifts precipitated by the pandemic, and its implementation alongside the European Pillar of Social Rights Action Plan, means that the outcomes could

4 May 2021
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The pandemic has had differential impacts on women. Raised consciousness about them must be applied to advance gender equality in recovery measures. All crises have a strongly gendered impact and none more so than the current pandemic, across a range of indicators. While the virus itself seems to

28 April 2021

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