Incentivise, not restrict: Climate policy views in the Living and Working in Europe e-survey

According to 2025 Copernicus data (Copernicus, 2025), Europe is the fastest-warming continent. This is reflected in the perceptions and reported living experiences of many respondents in the latest LWE e-survey: half reported experiencing high temperatures in their homes and workplaces, and three in five reported that they could not stay outside because it was too warm. The most affected areas include Mediterranean countries. Unsurprisingly, these direct experiences of extreme heat translate into particularly high levels of environmental concern among respondents residing in Malta, Greece, Cyprus and Italy.

Environmental concern also varies sharply by climate change attribution beliefs: 57.7% of respondents believe that climate change is mostly or entirely due to human activity, 22.3% consider it equally a natural and human-caused phenomenon, 16.0% attribute it entirely to natural causes and 4.0% claim that climate change is not happening.

The proportion reporting high concern differs substantially across these belief groups (see Figure 1): 70% of those who attribute climate change to human activity report being very concerned about environmental issues, compared with 46% of those who view it as equally natural and human-caused, 24% of those who attribute it to natural causes and 20% of those that believe climate change is not happening. It is important to notice that, while respondents who believe that climate change is not happening show low concern rates, they represent a small portion of all respondents (4.0%).

However, it is important to note that, in absolute terms, respondents who attribute climate change to human activity account for the largest share of those who are very concerned overall, representing 40.6% of all survey participants (see Figure 2). This reflects both the prevalence of this belief and the high levels of concern within this group.

Belief systems, including convictions about the role of human activity in climate change, shape support for policies aiming to curb greenhouse gas emissions (GHG). Climate policies take different forms. Regulatory measures, such as mandating reductions in GHG emissions through cleaner energy sources or taxing polluting energy sources, restrict or make harmful activities more expensive. Alternatively, policies can incentivise citizens to adopt more environmentally-friendly behaviours, such as subsidising the purchase of greener products, from appliances to vehicles. Critically, variations in beliefs and concern levels across the population create challenges for policy design, acceptance and implementation.

Since 2020, Europe has pursued ambitious climate goals and made a commitment to net-zero emissions. According to the Just Transition principle, no one should be left behind in the transition to carbon neutrality. In practice, transitioning towards net-zero requires acceptance of, and meaningful participation in, climate policies. As policymakers refine their approaches to achieve these targets, understanding European citizens’ perspectives and their willingness to support various policy measures has become increasingly critical.

Eurofound’s LWE e-survey reveals new essential insights on these matters. Among respondents, 45% believe that the green transition will bring significant benefits that outweigh the associated costs, while 30.9% disagree and around 24% have no opinion. Similarly, around half of respondents agree that they take actions that are good for the environment even when they require time or money, while the remaining half disagree or remain neutral on this statement. When the level of concern about environmental issues is taken into account, respondents who report high concern are significantly more likely to agree that they take such actions than those with lower concern.

When asked about a possible monthly contribution of about 1% of household income to address climate change, 42.1% of respondents stated that they were not willing to do so, while 39.5% said that they would and one in five preferred not to answer. Willingness to contribute differs markedly across income groups: among those who easily make ends meet, 51.4% are willing to contribute, which is 20 percentage points higher than among those facing financial difficulties (31.4%). This disparity is unsurprising, as a 1% contribution is less likely to affect the financial stability of households with greater financial means. By contrast, for households struggling financially, 1% of income represents a meaningful sacrifice. These findings reveal a critical policy constraint: the varying capacity of different groups to absorb the costs of the green transition. Those experiencing financial difficulties have limited capacity to take on additional burdens, regardless of their level of environmental concern.

Beyond widespread concern about the environment and a generally positive attitude towards trying to fix the matter, policy support also depends on the type of intervention and how it affects everyday life. Respondents were asked to rate their support for six policies, which can be classified into two groups. Restrictive policies include increasing fossil fuel taxes, banning internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) and banning inefficient appliances. Incentive-based policies comprise subsidising renewable energy, providing tax credits for the purchase of an electric vehicle (EV) and investing in public transport.

Policy support varies considerably by type. According to the results of the e-survey, both restrictive and incentive-based policies receive substantial support across Europe; however, incentive-based measures are markedly more popular. While 56% of respondents favour at least one restrictive policy, 88.7% favour at least one incentive-based policy. Despite the positive overall outlook, differences across socioeconomic groups and Member States can be detected.

For both types of policies, younger, female, highly educated and urban respondents appear to be more likely to support at least one policy than their counterparts (Figure 3). Three in four respondents who are students support at least one restrictive policy and almost all support at least one incentive-based policy. Among the groups displaying lower support, one in two unemployed, retired or inactive respondents do not support any of the restrictive policies, whereas the share has significantly decreased for incentive-based policies, with only one in five not supporting any.

Countries feature notable differences too. Respondents in Malta, Greece and Hungary are more likely to support incentive-based policies, whereas those in Malta, Italy and Finland are more likely to support restrictive policies (Figure 4). These patterns persist even after controlling for sociodemographic variables, including age, gender, employment status, education and degree of urbanisation.

For policymakers, it is important to understand not just the degree of policy support but, more critically, what drives this support or lack thereof. Beyond beliefs and personal convictions about the environment, practical considerations and structural factors – particularly trust in institutions, perceived fairness and information sources – also play a crucial role.

Regarding restrictive policies, trust in the EU, feelings of individual and community fairness and perceived financial stability are among the factors correlated with higher support among respondents (Figure 5). As most of the restrictive policies included in the e-survey have a supranational character, trust in the EU is likely to be particularly relevant to ensuring citizens support the measures. Similarly, if respondents feel that they themselves and their community are respected and treated fairly by the government, they may accept that these actions are necessary and, in turn, show higher levels of support. Not surprisingly, respondents who express greater concern about climate change and those with greater financial means are more likely to support at least one restrictive measure.

Considering support for incentive-based policies, trust in the EU and the perceptions of fairness towards one’s community are correlated with higher support. Similarly, respondents who express greater concern about environmental issues are more likely to support these types of policies. By contrast, financial means do not appear to be an important determinant of support for incentive-based policies, perhaps because these policies do not directly affect household finances (Figure 6).

Interestingly, a common pattern emerges for both types of policy. Among the factors correlated with a decrease in support for either type of policy, the mode of news consumption is a key determinant. Respondents who mainly use non-traditional news sources (such as social media and blogs) to stay informed are significantly less likely to support either type of policy than those who mainly consume news from traditional outlets such as TV, newspapers and radio. This may relate to the prevalence of online misinformation regarding climate change, a hypothesis that warrants further exploration.

The first findings from Eurofound's 2025 LWE e-survey reveal that support for climate policies in Europe is substantial but depends on the type of policy proposed. Despite a considerable number of respondents expressing concern about environmental issues and taking measures to curb their emissions, only around half of the LWE e-survey respondents expressed support for restrictive policies that rely on taxation or bans on polluting goods. Conversely, policies that offer incentives, subsidies and tax credits are much more widely supported and welcomed by a large majority of respondents. Among respondents, policy support seems to be correlated with levels of concern about environmental issues, practical needs and financial means, as well as trust in institutions and perceived fairness.

These findings underscore a central challenge for European climate policy: designing interventions that are not only environmentally effective but also socially acceptable and politically feasible. As Europe advances towards its net-zero emissions targets, understanding what enables, and what hinders, public support will be essential for the successful implementation of the green transition.

Eurofound’s ongoing research and related forthcoming publications on the social implications of the green transition dig deeper into the factors that shape policy support, highlighting the many challenges in creating effective and fair policies for a just transition to a carbon-neutral economy. This work also examines examples of successful policy implementation, in areas such as the decarbonisation of buildings, transport poverty and, importantly, public engagement practices. In addition, the research investigates behavioural policy approaches that orient citizens towards new, greener behaviour and that strengthen communication and community engagement.