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Collective bargaining

Collective bargaining refers to all negotiations between one or more employers (or their organisations) and one or more workers’ organisations (trade unions) for determining working conditions and terms of employment, including issues related to pay and working time, and for regulating relations between employers and workers, as outlined in ILO Convention 154. A number of dimensions of collective bargaining (‘bargaining structure’) have been identified. These include coverage which refers to the percentage of employees directly affected by agreements; the level that bargaining occurs at; the scope, or range of topics encompassed by bargaining; and depth – that is the extent to which agreements are jointly implemented and reviewed.

Topic

Recent updates

Eurofound research

Eurofound collects country-level information on collective bargaining in the EU through its Network of Eurofound Correspondents. Across the EU, collective bargaining coverage is very diverse, as Eurofound research shows. About 60% of employees are covered by collective bargaining in the EU, but this ranges from 80% or more in some countries to less than 10% in others (European Commission data).

Collective bargaining in the Member States

Eurofound’s working life country profiles outline the collective bargaining systems in the EU Member States and Norway.

Research in 2022 looks at the developments in collective bargaining as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Separate studies in 2022 will also examine the role of social dialogue and collective bargaining in how two sectors that were hard hit by the pandemic are adapting, namely civil aviation and hospitals. 

Closely linked to the country profiles is the database of wages, working time and collective disputes, providing regular updates on the pay and working time setting systems in place in each country and including data on the level of collectively agreed pay or working time from 2000 to 2019.

An earlier study on collective bargaining in Europe in the 21st century maps developments over a 15-year period in the main aspects of collective bargaining – apart from pay and working time, which are analysed separately. 

Collective bargaining on pay

Eurofound reports regularly on pay developments across the EU, monitoring how pay outcomes adjust in line with changes in economic circumstances. 

National wage-bargaining institutions are crucial in achieving pay outcomes that help to increase employment and economic growth. Using a large set of empirical macroeconomic data from various sources, Eurofound’s report on pay in Europe in different wage-bargaining regimes analyses how the institutional features of national wage bargaining regimes influence pay outcomes.

A study on pay in Europe in the 21st century provides comparative time series on wage bargaining outcomes across the EU Member States and Norway. In doing so, it discusses pay developments against the background of different wage bargaining regimes and looks into the link between pay and productivity developments.

Collective bargaining on working time

Eurofound monitors the nature and extent of the role of collective bargaining in determining working time across the Member States, taking into account that bargaining takes place at different levels (intersectoral, sectoral, company) and that bargaining coverage varies considerably by country.

Research on working time developments in the 21st century looks at work duration and its regulation in the EU. The report examines the main trends and milestones characterising the evolution of the most important aspects of collectively agreed working time in the EU during the first decade of the 21st century.

Eurofound also produces a bi-annual report on the major developments in working time in the EU and Norway based on national reporting. It provides a general overview of the present status of the duration of working time as a result of collective bargaining, and complements the database of wages, working time and collective disputes. 

Survey data on collective wage agreements in Europe

Eurofound’s European Company Survey (ECS) gathers data on collective wage agreements and looks at the extent to which establishments are covered by collective bargaining at any level. It examines the level of information provision, consultation and negotiation in establishments and also looks at the influence of employee representation and social dialogue at company level. 

Key outputs

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In this pilot project, Eurofound successfully established the feasibility of, and piloted, an EU-wide database of minimum pay rates contained in collective agreements related to low-paid workers. A conceptual and...

26 January 2024
Publication
Research report
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Collective bargaining systems in the EU have undergone a steady change since the end of the 1990s. But as businesses across Europe struggle to respond to intensifying global competition, pressure...

4 November 2015
Publication
Research report
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National wage-bargaining institutions are crucial in achieving pay outcomes that help to increase employment and economic growth within the context of avoiding macroeconomic imbalances within the European Monetary Union. Using...

11 September 2015
Publication
Research report
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The issue of wages has attracted particular attention at European level since the onset of the economic crisis. Changes in economic governance, notably within the European semester, have prompted discussions...

13 April 2014
Publication
Research report

EU context

Collective bargaining, the core of organised industrial relations, takes place in different institutional settings. National systems vary in terms of the respective roles of collective bargaining and legislation in regulating the labour market, in the levels at which bargaining is conducted (cross-sectoral, sectoral, company and workplace, regional, occupational), and in the way in which negotiations at different levels may interrelate (articulation). The degrees of centralisation and coordination of collective bargaining – and especially pay bargaining – are important features of the system, with implications for both labour market and macroeconomic outcomes. The outcome of collective bargaining is typically a collective agreement. Such agreements can regulate both the procedures for relations between the signatory parties and the terms and conditions of employment of those workers covered by the agreement, such as pay and working time.

While the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union recognises the autonomy of social partners, in particular in relation to pay bargaining, EU policies nevertheless exert a significant influence on collective bargaining and the wider industrial relations system. For example, the country-specific recommendations (CSRs) in the framework of the European Semester have addressed issues such as aligning pay developments with productivity, minimum wage-setting and pay indexation systems. More generally, collective bargaining takes place within a framework which is, in part, set by EU legislation, including provisions concerning equal pay for work of equal value and the requirements of the Working Time Directive and related legislation.

 

Eurofound expert(s)

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Christine Aumayr-Pintar is a senior research manager in the Working Life unit at Eurofound. Her current research topics include minimum wages, collectively agreed wages and gender...

Senior research manager,
Working life research unit
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Mária Sedláková is a research officer in the Working Life unit at Eurofound. She is responsible for drafting overview reports for sectoral representativeness studies, management...

Research officer,
Working life research unit
Publications results (144)

This study provides information allowing for an assessment of the representativeness of the actors involved in the European sectoral social dialogue committee for the road transport sector. Their relative representativeness legitimises their right to be consulted, their role and effective participat

05 December 2024

This study provides information allowing for an assessment of the representativeness of the actors involved in the European sectoral social dialogue committee for the professional postal and courier activities sector. Their relative representativeness legitimises their right to be consulted, their

29 November 2024

This publication comprises individual country reports on developments in working life in each of the 27 EU Member States and Norway in 2023, based on national research and survey results. The topics covered include the political context in 2023; updates on the social partners and social dialogue ins

26 July 2024

In this pilot project, Eurofound successfully established the feasibility of, and piloted, an EU-wide database of minimum pay rates contained in collective agreements related to low-paid workers. A conceptual and measurement framework was devised, a total of 692 collective agreements – related to 24

26 January 2024

This study provides information allowing for an assessment of the representativeness of the actors involved in the European sectoral social dialogue committee for the furniture sector.

08 December 2023

Previous Eurofound research developed three complementary tools to examine the dynamics of industrial relations and compare how national industrial relations systems are faring in terms of quality and change over time.

05 December 2023

This study provides information allowing for an assessment of the representativeness of the actors involved in the European sectoral social dialogue committee for the woodworking sector.

21 November 2023

This study provides information to allow for an assessment of the representativeness of the national and supranational social partners at cross-industry level in the EU.

09 November 2023

This study provides information allowing for an assessment of the representativeness of the actors involved in the European sectoral social dialogue committee for the professional football sector.

26 October 2023

This report examines the average weekly working hours across Europe in 2021 and 2022. It covers important developments resulting from legislative reforms in collective bargaining at national or sectoral level, drawing on debates about the reduction of working time and the four-day working week.

24 October 2023

Online resources results (726)

Real-term value of negotiated wages eroded – what can be done?

Inflation and economic uncertainty continued to influence collective wage bargaining in 2023. As a result, any gains made in real terms (in the ‘median’ EU country) since 2009 were eroded between 2020 and 2023.

Labour disputes across Europe in 2023: Ongoing struggle for higher wages as cost of living rises

The year 2023 was marked by several significant labour disputes across Europe, even in countries with a traditionally ‘quiet’ industrial relations landscape. The main reason for industrial unrest was wages not keeping pace with the increasing cost of living. The most affected sectors were transport,

Working life in Czechia

This profile describes the key characteristics of working life in Czechia. It aims to provide the relevant background information on the structures, institutions and relevant regulations regarding working life.

Working life in Cyprus

This profile describes the key characteristics of working life in Cyprus. It aims to provide the relevant background information on the structures, institutions and relevant regulations regarding working life.

Working life in Spain

This profile describes the key characteristics of working life in Spain. It aims to provide the relevant background information on the structures, institutions, actors and relevant regulations regarding working life.

Working life in Ireland

This profile describes the key characteristics of working life in Ireland. It aims to provide the relevant background information on the structures, institutions, actors and relevant regulations regarding working life.

Working life in Greece

This profile describes the key characteristics of working life in Greece. It aims to provide the relevant background information on the structures, institutions, actors and relevant regulations regarding working life.

Working life in Hungary

This profile describes the key characteristics of working life in Hungary. It aims to provide the relevant background information on the structures, institutions, actors and relevant regulations regarding working life.

Working life in Italy

This profile describes the key characteristics of working life in Italy. It aims to provide the relevant background information on the structures, institutions, actors and relevant regulations regarding working life.

Working life in Latvia

This profile describes the key characteristics of working life in Latvia. It aims to provide the relevant background information on the structures, institutions, actors and relevant regulations regarding working life.


Blogs results (7)

The COVID-19 pandemic made us acutely aware of how dependent our society is on certain essential workers. We felt deep gratitude towards workers in healthcare especially, because they worked ceaselessly in often-difficult conditions.

22 November 2023
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Whatever the benefits of telework – and there are many, including more flexible working time, increased productivity and less commuting – there are drawbacks, as many of the one-third of Europeans who were exclusively working from home during the pandemic will attest. Primary among these is the ‘alw

3 December 2020
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In the context of the ongoing trend of a fall in collective bargaining coverage, and recent calls at EU level to promote collective bargaining coverage as an instrument to support fair and decent wages, new data from Eurofound’s fourth European Company Survey (ECS) show that two-thirds of workers (i

28 October 2020
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The coronavirus disease (Covid-19) is having drastic consequences for the world of work. In most European countries workers who are not delivering essential ‘frontline’ services are being asked to stay home. Unfortunately many are out of work, while many of those who are not are minimum-wage and low

1 April 2020
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The International Labour Organization (ILO) met for the first time 100 years ago, and right at the top of the agenda for discussion for this new specialised UN agency was the 8-hour working day. This discussion subsequently resulted in the Hours of Work (Industry) Convention, which stated that ‘The

12 November 2019
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Seniority entitlements have largely been on the decline since the 1990s, and have been gradually phased-out from legislation in Europe, as well as in collective agreements. However, it would be premature to dismiss seniority-based entitlements as a thing of the past, as they remain in force across E

17 April 2019
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​Nowadays we all know that long or excessive working hours may have serious negative impacts on a person’s health and wellbeing. Eurofound‘s new report 'Working time developments in the 21st century' suggests that if working time standards are mainly left to legislation or to be set unilaterally by

4 March 2016
Upcoming publications results (4)

This study provides information allowing for an assessment of the representativeness of the actors involved in the European sectoral social dialogue committee for the graphical industry. Their relative representativeness legitimises their right to be consulted, their role and effective participation

July 2025

This study provides information allowing for an assessment of the representativeness of the actors involved in the European sectoral social dialogue committee for the extractive industries sector. Their relative representativeness legitimises their right to be consulted, their role and effective par

December 2024

This study provides information allowing for an assessment of the representativeness of the actors involved in the European sectoral social dialogue committee for the construction sector. Their relative representativeness legitimises their right to be consulted, their role and effective participatio

December 2024

This study provides information allowing for an assessment of the representativeness of the actors involved in the European sectoral social dialogue committee for the chemical sector. Their relative representativeness legitimises their right to be consulted, their role and effective participation in

December 2024
Data results (1)

The database on minimum wage rates in collective agreements related to low-paid workers is available as interactive dashboard.

14 February 2024

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