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Skills and training

‘Skill’ has various meanings. At the level of the individual, it means the person’s current level of competence or performance at a certain task; alternatively, it refers to a task a person can perform to a satisfactory level. The European Qualifications Framework (EQF) defines skills as the ability to apply knowledge and use know-how to complete tasks and solve problems. Skills can be described as cognitive (involving the use of logical, intuitive and creative thinking) or practical (involving manual dexterity and the use of methods, materials, tools and instruments). At national level, policymakers refer to the skill levels of a population; the level, type and numbers of qualifications are typically used as proxies for the skill level of a given population. Training is the process of enhancing employees’ skills, attitudes and knowledge so as to improve competence levels. Vocational training, including apprenticeships, may also constitute part of the publicly provided education system.

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Company practices to tackle labour shortages

Explore our digital report summary. This report centres on the recruitment and retention measures that organisations have deployed to address labour shortages, based on 17 case studies in different sectors...

Data story

Key messages

  • Labour shortages in the EU are limiting production and services delivery in several sectors and the fight for talent is particularly acute in countries such as Austria, Belgium, Czechia, Germany and the Netherlands. As drivers of these shortages vary by sector, occupation and region, measures to address them must respond in different ways, ranging from developing skills, making certain sectors and occupations more attractive, activating underutilised labour, and better matching supply and demand – Findings confirm that tackling labour shortages is not just about skills.
  • Measures to make use of existing labour are especially important in ICT and in the context of the green and digital transition where skills mismatch is the biggest driver of shortages. With rapidly evolving technological developments and the growing need to identify future skills needs in a greening economy, joint efforts between governments, social partners and training providers will be critical to identify existing skills needs and forecast future ones. The 2023 European Year of Skills is an important opportunity to promote effective and inclusive investment in training across Europe.
  • 70% of EU neighbouring country respondents reported a lack of sufficient access to education and training programmes. Educational and training systems offer huge potential through upskilling and reskilling for job seekers and those with lower skills, notably through public employment services. The 2023 European Year of Skills will be an important opportunity to promote effective and inclusive investment in training across Europe.
  • Most workers do not work in an environment that supports the development of their skills. Furthermore, close to half of workers reported that they did not have enough opportunities to use their skills and knowledge in their work. This emphasises the key role that companies play in supporting the development of a skilled workforce. The 2023 European Year of Skills can make a significant contribution to raising awareness about these challenges.
  • Close to half of employees (45%) receive some type of training paid for or provided by their employer. The shares of younger (16–24 years) and older (aged 56 years and over) women who receive training (34% and 40%, respectively) are smaller than the shares among their male counterparts. Training opportunities continue to differ by occupation, with the highest skilled receiving more training.

Eurofound research

Achieving an appropriate match between skills and tasks, as well as creating opportunities for developing skills and competences are important dimensions of quality of work and employment. Skills are the passport to employment; the better skilled an individual, the more employable they are. Employability is a combination of factors, such as job-specific skills and transversal skills, which enable individuals to enter into employment, stay in employment and advance in their careers. 

Eurofound provides extensive knowledge about skills in the European workplace, including information on training, work organisation and job design, job quality and skills mismatches. Skills and training needs are also featuring in research on the digital age and platform work. 

Data collection on skills and training

Based on analysis of the European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS) data, Eurofound has established a set of job quality indices, representing different dimensions of job quality, one of which is skills and discretion. This index measures the skills required in the job. It also studies the opportunities workers may have to understand and influence the way work is performed, as well as the possibilities available to develop their job-related skills through training. The EWCS data confirm that access to training provided by the employer has been increasing over time.

The European Working Conditions Telephone Survey (EWCTS) 2021 examines job prospects and workers’ opportunities to use their knowledge and skills in their work, as well as opportunities to develop skills through training and for career advancement. It also looks at access to and demand for training during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The European Company Survey 2019 (ECS 2019), jointly carried out by Eurofound and sister agency Cedefop, collected information on workplace practices with regard to work organisation, human resource management, skills use and skills strategies, direct employee participation and social dialogue in European establishments. The overview report of the ECS 2019 examines skill requirements and skill match, as well as workplace practices on training and learning. Further analysis of the ECS 2019 data examined the links between management strategies and workplace practices aimed at optimising skills use and business performance.

The European Quality of Life Survey (EQLS) collects data on educational attainment of respondents, as well as how they rank the quality of education in their country in terms of facilities, expertise of educators and curriculum. Analysis of this data provides evidence on access to education and training systems across the EU and users’ assessment of the quality of those services over time. The EQLS also looks at digitalisation in health and social care services, the gaps in skills in using e-healthcare, as well as the inequalities in access to services. 

The European Jobs Monitor (EJM) also analyses shifts in the employment structure in the EU, examining where jobs are being created and lost. It assesses these shifts using various proxies of job quality, such as wages and skill levels. With this data, Eurofound has also collaborated with Cedefop in its skills forecast up to 2030 to identify how wage structure and job tasks are changing. Analysis also explores the impact of computerisation on the task profile, and hence skills needs, of jobs.

Measures to support skills development

In response to the COVID-19 crisis, Eurofound’s data collection has expanded to include the EU PolicyWatch database of national-level policy responses. The database provides information on initiatives introduced to cushion the effects of the pandemic including measures to support businesses to get back to normal by enhancing training and employability. It incorporates the database of support instruments that are available to companies that are restructuring and the staff affected. It includes measures on skills and training development. 

Eurofound’s European Restructuring Monitor (ERM) database on restructuring related legislation provides information on regulations linked to the obligation on employees to undertake training, as well as on employers to provide skill development plans or training.

Digitalisation and skills in the labour market

The digital shift, amplified by COVID-19, is having an impact on labour markets and the employment distribution between occupations, as well as on the content and quality of work and its organisation. Digitalisation in the workplace is having an impact on skills needs and training requirements. Eurofound’s research on the digital age and platform work looks at opportunities and challenges of technological change for the future of work and employment, including training and skills development. Eurofound has developed a platform economy repository bringing together information on the subject, including a dossier on skills use and skills development in platform work. 

Research on game-changing technologies also looks at the how these can transform production processes and employment, including the implications for skills use and skills development. Additionally, a pilot project on the future of manufacturing, mandated to Eurofound by the European Commission, also explored the challenges facing national and company apprenticeship systems.

Work organisation and innovation

Research has examined innovations in work organisation and explored the links between these innovations and the potential benefits for employees and employers. Innovative work organisation systems that increase employee autonomy and motivate employees to fully use and further develop their skills are more likely to result in beneficial outcomes for employees and employers. Moreover, as these work organisation systems are aimed at unlocking employee potential, they are more likely to generate ideas for innovations in products and processes. 

Youth and NEETs

Eurofound has carried out extensive research over the years on the social and employment situation of young people in Europe, particularly those not in employment, education or training (NEETs), and analysed measures to increase their opportunities for employment, apprenticeship, traineeship and continued education, such as the EU Youth Guarantee. 

Lifelong learning

With an increased emphasis on lifelong learning in employment policy, the Skills Agenda aims to help people ‘build their skills throughout life in an environment where lifelong learning is the norm’. This is particularly important in the context of population ageing and the need to keep older workers economically active and in work longer. Eurofound’s EQLS 2016 examines the quality of European society, looking at for instance participation and community engagement, as well as involvement in training and lifelong learning to encourage active citizenship. Based on EWCS 2015 data, research on working conditions of workers of difference ages explores issues around access to training for older workers. Research has also looked into the role of governments and the social partners in keeping older workings in the labour market, as well as national policies that help to achieve sustainable work. 

Key outputs

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While unemployment is still a huge challenge in Europe, some countries, sectors and occupations are experiencing labour shortages. This report explores various approaches to identifying labour shortages and maps national...

20 July 2021
Publication
Research report

EU context

Sustained labour market participation is supported by the first key principle of the European Pillar of Social Rights which outlines the importance of maintaining and acquiring skills to ensure ‘equal opportunities and access to the labour market’. It states that everyone has the right to ‘quality and inclusive education, training and lifelong learning in order to maintain and acquire skills that enable them to participate fully in society and manage successfully transitions in the labour market’. As further outlined in the European Green Deal, reskilling and upskilling will enhance employability in the green economy via measures such as the Skills Agenda and Youth Guarantee.

The European Commission adopted the first Skills Agenda for Europe in June 2016, designed to make the right training, skills and support available to people in the EU. Building on this, on 1 July 2020 the Commission adopted the new European Skills Agenda for sustainable competitiveness, social fairness and resilience. Its 12 actions focus on objectives for improving existing skills and training in new skills, outlining targets to be reached by 2025. The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the crucial role of digital skills and competencies in ensuring business continuity, as well as in providing education and training remotely. The Commission is now placing skills at the heart of the EU policy agenda to help achieve a sustainable recovery from the impact of COVID-19.

The Commission has dedicated 2023 as the European Year of Skills, aiming to raise awareness around skills and the need to improve and develop skills to address skills shortages, while also helping people to get the right skills for good quality jobs through reskilling and upskilling.

This supports the EU initiatives already underway to support skills and training. On 1 July 2020, the Commission launched the Youth Employment Support package which is structured around four strands that will provide a bridge to jobs for the next generation. The Commission’s proposal for a Council Recommendation on a ‘Bridge to jobs’ reinforces the Youth Guarantee launched in 2013. This initiative links in with the needs of companies to provide the skills needed, particularly for the green and digital transitions, alongside developing transversal skills, such as entrepreneurial and career management skills. The package also includes a proposal on vocational education and training, a renewed impetus for apprenticeships and additional measures to support youth employment. 

On 8 June 2020, the Council of the European Union adopted conclusions on reskilling and upskilling as a basis for increasing sustainability and employability, in the context of supporting economic recovery and social cohesion. 

The Commission, along with EU Agency Cedefop, launched the EU Skills Panorama website in 2012 to present information on short- and medium-term skills needs, skills supply and skills mismatches in the EU. It aimed to improve the EU’s capacity to assess and anticipate skill needs to make education and training systems more responsive to labour market needs and to better match skill supply and demand. Cedefop is currently responsible for producing EU skills intelligence.

Eurofound’s work on skills and training links in with the Commission’s 2019–2024 priority on a Europe fit for the digital age. 

 

 

Eurofound expert(s)

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Gijs van Houten is a senior research manager in the Employment unit at Eurofound. He has specific expertise in cross-national survey methodology and the analysis of workplace...

Senior research manager,
Employment research unit
Publications results (133)

This Eurofound research paper explores the decarbonisation of residential heating through the adoption of heat pumps, a key component in the EU’s strategy to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050. Heat pumps offer a highly efficient alternative to traditional heating systems, leveraging renewable energy

30 September 2024

This report provides updated evidence on the persistence of labour shortages amid declining levels of labour market slack in the EU and at Member State level. This serves as a background to the main focus of the report, which is on organisational policies aimed at attracting workers to occupations

10 September 2024

Automation and digitisation technologies, including artificial intelligence, are rapidly evolving and becoming increasingly powerful and pervasive. The full range of their effects in the workplace is yet to be seen. It is, however, important not only to explore the ethical implications of digital te

12 September 2023

This report investigates the involvement of social partners in the just transition to a climate-neutral economy, with a particular focus on the territorial just transition plans. These plans aim to support the regions most negatively affected by the just transition by assisting workers to retrain

19 July 2023

On request by the Swedish Presidency of the Council of the European Union, Eurofound prepared a background paper as a basis for the discussion at the informal Employment, Social Policy, Health and Consumer Affairs Council (EPSCO) meeting on 3-4 May 2023. The paper outlines some of the key challenges

04 May 2023

В доклада се разглеждат вероятни и въображаеми сценарии за развитието на работата от разстояние и хибридната работа в ЕС до 2035 г., както и последиците от тях за сферата на труда. Доколко мениджърите и служителите, работодателските организации и синдикатите, както и политиците са подготвени за по

28 April 2023

Човешките ресурси допринасят за успеха на дадена организация със своите умения. Според модела на способностите, мотивацията и възможностите (AMO), приносът на служителите към ефективността на организацията зависи от техните умения, мотивацията им да използват своите умения и възможностите, с които

30 March 2023

В момент, когато икономиките започват да се възстановяват от пандемията от COVID-19, недостигът на работна ръка става все по-очевиден въпреки въздействието на войната в Украйна върху цените на енергията и суровините. Сред тях е недостигът, изострен от кризата, в някои сектори и професии, в които те

28 March 2023

Проучването „Живот, работа и COVID-19“, което Eurofound стартира за първи път в началото на 2020 г., има за цел да проследи широкообхватното въздействие на пандемията върху работата и живота на гражданите на ЕС. Петият кръг на проучването на Eurofound, проведено през пролетта на 2022 г., също хвърля

07 December 2022

Строгите ограничения в областта на общественото здраве, въведени от правителствата през 2020 г. с цел контролиране на пандемията от COVID-19, рязко промениха трудовия живот и продължиха да го оформят през следващите две години. Между март и ноември 2021 г. бяха проведени над 70 000 събеседвания в 36

29 November 2022

Online resources results (433)

Company practices to tackle labour shortages

Explore our digital report summary. This report centres on the recruitment and retention measures that organisations have deployed to address labour shortages, based on 17 case studies in different sectors and across 13 Member States.

Mary McCaughey speaks with Eurofound Research Manager Jorge Cabrita about new research that highlights poor job quality - including high emotional demands, working at high speed and to tight deadlines - among several of the sectors and professions deemed essential, key or critical during the COVID-1

24 October 2023

In this episode of Eurofound Talks Mary McCaughey speaks with Eurofound Research Manager Tina Weber, Eurofound Senior Research Manager Gijs van Houten, and Giovanni Russo, Senior Expert at CEDEFOP, about Europe’s skills challenges and what can be done to help workers and businesses adapt to future s

19 September 2023
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Building resilience after COVID-19: EU measures to protect jobs and promote skills

Since 2011, the Restructuring support instruments database of the EU PolicyWatch has been collecting information on measures that assist companies and workers to anticipate and manage restructuring. This article looks at measures in the database aimed at supporting employees and employers during the

Eurofound presentation to the European Parliament Committee on Employment and Social Affairs (EMPL), Ivailo Kalfin, Executive Director, Eurofound, 24 January 2023.

23 January 2023
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Policy responses from governments and social partners to the COVID-19 pandemic

EU Member States acted swiftly in the early phase of the COVID-19 pandemic, introducing measures aimed at cushioning the impact of the crisis on society, the economy and the labour market. In some countries, policies targeted businesses and employers directly; elsewhere, employees and self-employed

France: latest working life developments Q2 2018

The adoption of labour market reforms, strikes in the transport sector and new leadership among the social partners are the main topics of interest in this article. This country update reports on the latest developments in working life in France in the second quarter of 2018.

France: Government unveils plans for reform of apprenticeship system

The French government introduced a plan for the wide-scale reform of apprenticeship programmes in February 2018 that gives professional organisations a greater role in defining the content and number of training courses. The social partners, particularly employers, have welcomed the reform, which is


Blogs results (8)

‘Building back better’ is not just an empty slogan – we need the construction sector to help us achieve our climate targets. Eurofound research reveals that construction is where the Fit for 55 climate policy package will generate the most net new employment.

4 December 2023
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The European Commission declared 2023 as the European Year of Skills, stating ‘Helping people get the right skills for quality jobs and helping companies, in particular small and medium enterprises, address skills shortages in the EU is what this year is all about.’

27 March 2023
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Following the declines in employment rates and working hours across Europe in 2020, economies began to show signs of recovery during the first quarter of 2021. The gradual rekindling of economic activity has led to a surge in demand for workers and reawakened concerns over labour shortages. Difficul

20 July 2021
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As we leave behind the lockdowns and business disruptions of COVID-19 and enter a ‘new normal’, it is time to talk about how workplaces might be transformed to drive innovation. Some may baulk at this suggestion, as we continue to grapple with the pandemic fallout, but crises have always been a crad

28 June 2021
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The COVID-19 pandemic compelled governments to take exceptional measures to monitor and control the spread of the Coronavirus. Among them was the introduction in most EU Member States of tracking apps to gather data on citizens who have contracted the virus and to trace their contacts, a measure tha

13 January 2021
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According to the dictionary, an organisation is an organised group of people with a particular purpose. To achieve this purpose, tasks are divided between the members of the group, and the task of some of those people is to manage the others. Interestingly, whereas most tasks are allocated based on

27 November 2020
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The exponential growth of COVID-19 cases across Europe this autumn has quickly erased hopes that the virus had been contained and confirmed the surge of another wave of the pandemic. With Member States now implementing new restrictive measures for the second time since March in an attempt to control

23 October 2020
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In this article, Jean-Marie Jungblut looks at the health of careers in Europe. He argues that, since the average length of the most important job in a person’s life is over 20 years, time should be put aside in the middle of a career to check the fit between the worker and the job. Different scenari

21 June 2018
Data results (6)

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