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Arbeidstijd

De arbeidstijd betreft de tijd waarin de werknemer werkzaam is, ter beschikking van de werkgever staat en zijn werkzaamheden of functie uitoefent, overeenkomstig de nationale wetten en/of gebruiken. Werknemers in uiteenlopende beroepen of levensfasen hebben een verschillende arbeidsduur, waarbij met name het geslacht van belang is om deze verschillen te bepalen.

Topic

Recent updates

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In this episode of Eurofound Talks Mary McCaughey speaks with Eurofound Research Manager Tina Weber about new research on the right to disconnect, the evolution of the right to disconnect...
Podcast

EU context

De arbeidstijd is een belangrijk element van het arbeidsleven en de regulering hiervan staat centraal bij politieke, economische en sociale debatten op zowel nationaal als EU-niveau. Om de veiligheid en gezondheid van werknemers te beschermen, vereist de EU-arbeidstijdenrichtlijn dat alle lidstaten zich committeren aan minimumnormen voor de arbeidsduur ten behoeve van alle werknemers in de gehele EU. Deze normen hebben onder meer betrekking op de maximale wekelijkse arbeidsduur (vastgesteld op 48 uur), de minimale rusttijd en pauzes, de jaarlijkse vakantie, en nacht- en ploegenarbeid.

Het werk van Eurofound

Eurofound verzamelt al vele jaren informatie over een aantal aspecten van de arbeidstijd en de gevolgen ervan voor de arbeidsomstandigheden en de levenskwaliteit van mannen en vrouwen in de EU. De onderzoeken van Eurofound beogen een beter begrip van de organisatie van de arbeidstijd en de invloed hiervan op de werkgelegenheid, productiviteit, welzijn, en het evenwicht tussen werk en privéleven. Eurofound heeft periodiek gegevens over arbeidstijd via cao's en de rol van de sociale partners gepubliceerd en onlangs geëvalueerd in een langetermijnperspectief. Uit studies naar arbeidstijd per geslacht blijkt dat mannen veel vaker lange werkdagen maken, terwijl vrouwen meer tijd besteden aan onbetaald huishoudelijk werk.

Reguleren en organiseren van arbeidstijd

Het reguleren van de arbeidstijd is belangrijk om het evenwicht tussen werk en privéleven alsook de arbeidsparticipatie te verbeteren. Bedrijven en werknemers hebben in het dynamische economische klimaat behoefte aan flexibiliteit. Daartoe heeft Eurofound vanuit een levensloopperspectief onderzocht welke verbanden er bestaan tussen de arbeidstijd enerzijds en het evenwicht tussen werk en privéleven anderzijds.

Deze studies beschouwen een aantal aspecten van de organisatie van de arbeidstijd en de gevolgen voor de productiviteit en de arbeidsomstandigheden. Naar aanleiding van de veranderende organisatie van de arbeidstijd heeft Eurofound onlangs samen met de Internationale Arbeidsorganisatie (IAO) onderzoek gedaan naar de gevolgen van telewerken en ICT-mobiel werk voor de arbeidstijd van de desbetreffende werknemers.

Een pas verschenen rapport hanteert een langetermijnperspectief op de arbeidstijd om de ontwikkeling in aspecten van de arbeidstijd via cao's binnen de EU in de vroege 21e eeuw te bestuderen. Hierbij ligt de nadruk op vijf specifieke sectoren: chemie, metaalbewerking, het bankwezen, de detailhandel en het openbaar bestuur. In het verslag wordt de institutionele regulering beschreven en de ontwikkeling van de overeengekomen arbeidsduur en de gebruikelijke arbeidsduur in de periode 1999-2014 beoordeeld.

Arbeidstijd in onderzoeksenquêtes

Eurofound ontleent gegevens over arbeidstijdgerelateerde kwesties aan drie gezaghebbende enquêtes.

De Europese enquête naar de arbeidsomstandigheden (European Working Conditions Survey, EWCS) biedt verschillende invalshoeken op de arbeidstijd. In 2015 benoemde de zesde EWCS zeven indicatoren van baankwaliteit, waaronder de kwaliteit van de arbeidstijd. Deze indicator beoordeelde de mate waarin lange arbeidsduur voorkomt, de ruimte om pauze te houden, afwijkende arbeidstijden, arbeidstijdregelingen en flexibiliteit, en de invloed hiervan op de gezondheid en het welzijn van werknemers. De enquêtebevindingen geven aan dat 43% van de werknemers zeer regelmatige werktijden heeft.

Op basis van gegevens uit de zesde EWCS heeft Eurofound onlangs onderzoek gedaan naar de arbeidstijdpatronen voor duurzaam werk. De verbanden tussen arbeidstijdpatronen, het evenwicht tussen werk en privéleven en voorkeuren op het gebied van arbeidstijd staan in die analyse centraal, evenals de gezondheid en het welzijn van werknemers. Ook de duurzaamheid van de huidige arbeidsomstandigheden en arbeidstijdpatronen met het oog op de toekomst worden beoordeeld.

De Europese enquête over de kwaliteit van het bestaan (European Quality of Life Survey, EQLS) verkent zowel betaalde als onbetaalde arbeidstijdregelingen en hun invloed op de mate waarin men tevreden is over het evenwicht tussen werk en privéleven.

In potentie drukken arbeidstijdregelingen niet alleen een aanzienlijke stempel op de efficiëntie, de productiviteit en het concurrentievermogen van bedrijven, maar vooral ook op de gezondheid, het welzijn en de motivatie van hun werknemers. De Europese bedrijvenenquête (European Company Survey, ECS) stelt Eurofound in staat om uitgebreid onderzoek te verrichten naar de arbeidstijd en het evenwicht tussen werk en privéleven. Relevante facetten hiervan zijn de omvang van flexibele arbeidstijdregelingen en -rekeningen, deeltijdwerk, overwerk en afwijkende arbeidsduur, ouderschapsverlof en ander langdurig verlof, gefaseerde en vervroegde uittreding, en bedrijfsspecifiek beleid om het evenwicht tussen werk en privéleven te faciliteren.

Uitgelicht: Actuele update van EurWORK over zondagwerk in Europa

23 september 2016 - In diverse EU-lidstaten worden wetten aangenomen om de zondagsopenstelling van winkels en bedrijven te regelen. Nieuwe wetgeving in andere lidstaten beperkt juist dergelijke openingstijden. De Europese enquête naar de arbeidsomstandigheden meldt tussen 2010 en 2015 een stijgend percentage werknemers dat aangeeft op zondag te werken, hetgeen bewijs levert voor de toegenomen frequentie van handel op zondag.
Ontwikkelingen binnen zondagwerk in Europa

Bronnen

Eurofound research

For many years now, Eurofound has collected information on various aspects of working time and their implications for working conditions and quality of life of men and women in the EU. Eurofound’s studies on working time aim to improve understanding of how long workers work and how their time is organised and the implications of working time patterns for employment, productivity, well-being and the balance between work and private life. Data on collectively agreed working time and the role of the social partners have been published regularly, and have also been analysed from a long-term perspective. Research on men’s working time versus women’s shows that men are much more likely to work longer hours and women are more likely to spend more time doing unpaid domestic work. While most individuals, regardless of their sex, seem to be satisfied with their current working time, the majority of those expressing a preference to change their working time say they would like to reduce their hours.

Regulation and organisation of working time

Regulating working time has a role to play in increasing work–life balance and also labour market participation. In a fast-changing economic climate, companies and workers need flexibility. Eurofound has explored the relationship between working time and work–life balance in a life course perspective.

Research has looked at the various aspects of the organisation of working time and the implications for productivity and working conditions. As the organisation of working time is changing, Eurofound together with the International Labour Organization examined the effects of telework and ICT-mobile work on the working time of those engaged in such work arrangements.

Taking a long-term perspective on working time, Eurofound has examined the evolution of aspects of collectively agreed working time in the EU at the beginning of the 21st century. The research focused in particular on five sectors: chemicals, metalworking, banking, retail and public administration. It described the institutional regimes of working time regulation and assesses changes in agreed working hours and usual working hours between 1999 and 2014.

Eurofound has also looked at the national approaches on how and when breaks from work should be taken. The research compares different approaches among Member States, gives examples of judicial rulings, highlights some types of work that attract special consideration and looks into causal relationships between breaks, health and performance at work.

Research on new ways of working fostered by digitalisation like teleworking and platform work have highlighted the increasing trend towards flexible working with far-reaching implications for the duration and organisation of working time. These aspects are also part of the regulatory debate at EU and national level, for instance wtih the adoption of legislation on the right to disconnect. 

Working time in survey analysis

Eurofound’s three major surveys provide data on issues related to working time.

The European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS) covers working time from various angles. In the 2021 European Working Conditions Telephone Survey (EWCTS), working time arrangements was one of six dimensions of job quality analysed. This dimension includes unsocial work schedules (as a job demand) and working time flexibility (as a job resource). The EWCTS captured four types of working time that are generally regarded as unsocial: regularly working in one’s free time, regularly working at night, working long hours and regularly being required to work at short notice. Flexibility in working hours is positively related to worker’s well-being and supports a healthy balance between their personal and working lives. The EWCTS highlighted the ease with which an individual can take an hour or two off during working hours to attend to a personal matter as an indicator of such flexibility. 

Using EWCS 2015 data, Eurofound has examined working time patterns for sustainable work. The analysis looks at the links between working time patterns, work–life balance and working time preferences, as well as workers’ health and well-being. It also assesses how sustainable the current working conditions and working time patterns are into the future.

The European Quality of Life Survey (EQLS) looks at working time arrangements, both paid and unpaid, and their impact on satisfaction with work–life balance.

Working time arrangements can have a significant bearing on the efficiency, productivity and competitiveness of companies, not to mention the health, well-being and motivation of their employees. Through its European Company Survey (ECS), Eurofound has also carried out comprehensive research on working time and work–life balance. It has looked at the prevalence of flexible working time arrangements and working time accounts, part-time work, overtime and non-standard working hours; parental and other long-term leave; phased and early retirement; as well as specific policies to support work–life balance in companies.

Key outputs

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This report examines the average weekly working hours across Europe in 2021 and 2022. It covers important developments resulting from legislative reforms in collective bargaining at national or sectoral level...

24 oktober 2023
Publication
Research report

Current and ongoing research

Research continues in this topic on a variety of themes, which are outlined below with links to forthcoming titles.

Eurofound expert(s)

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Jorge Cabrita is a senior research manager in the Working Life unit. He is responsible for formulating, coordinating and managing European-wide research, and promoting the...

Senior research manager,
Working life research unit
Oscar Vargas Llave

Oscar Vargas Llave is a research manager in the Working Life unit at Eurofound and manages projects on changes in the world of work and the impact on working conditions and related...

Research manager,
Working life research unit
Publications results (214)

This report explores EU Member States’ legislation around the right to disconnect and assesses the impact of company policies in this area on employees’ hours of connection, working time, work–life balance, health and well-being, and overall workplace satisfaction.

30 November 2023

Using data from the European Working Conditions Telephone Survey 2021 and building on a theoretical model that differentiates between job stressors and job resources, this report examines key psychosocial risks in the workplace and their impact on health.

23 November 2023

This report examines the average weekly working hours across Europe in 2021 and 2022. It covers important developments resulting from legislative reforms in collective bargaining at national or sectoral level, drawing on debates about the reduction of working time and the four-day working week.

24 October 2023

This publication comprises individual country reports on developments in working life in each of the 27 EU Member States and Norway in 2022, based on national research and survey results. The topics covered include the policy responses of governments to inflation and how inflation has featured in

05 May 2023

In dit verslag presenteert Eurofound zijn onderzoek naar telewerken tijdens de COVID-19-pandemie in 2020 en 2021. Er wordt gekeken naar veranderingen in het aantal telewerkers, de werkomstandigheden van thuiswerkende werknemers en veranderingen in de regelgeving met betrekking tot deze werkregeling

08 December 2022

Als gevolg van de strenge gezondheidsmaatregelen die de overheid in 2020 heeft opgelegd om de COVID-19-pandemie het hoofd te bieden, is ons werkleven er plots helemaal anders gaan uitzien. De beperkingen hebben zich ook in de twee jaar daarna nog laten voelen. Tussen maart en november 2021 werden

29 November 2022

In dit verslag worden de wetgeving en de collectieve onderhandelingen over telewerk in de 27 lidstaten en Noorwegen in kaart gebracht en onder de loep genomen. Onder andere wordt ingegaan op de belangrijkste verschillen en overeenkomsten tussen de landen wat betreft de wetgeving inzake telewerk en

01 September 2022

This publication consists of individual country reports on working life during 2021 for 28 countries – the 27 EU Member States and Norway. The country reports summarise evidence on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on working life based on national research and survey results during 2021. They

19 May 2022

Despite the well-known adverse effects of regular long working hours on workers’ health, well-being and performance, many workers in the EU continue to work beyond their normal hours. Part of this additional working time is classified as overtime. This report takes a comparative overview of how

10 March 2022

In 2020 kwam door de COVID-19-pandemie veel economische bedrijvigheid geheel of gedeeltelijk stil te liggen. Dit had verstrekkende gevolgen voor de arbeidsmarkt. Aan het begin van de pandemie kreeg de werkgelegenheid zwaardere klappen dan tijdens de wereldwijde financiële crisis. De regelingen voor

19 October 2021

Online resources results (559)
In this episode of Eurofound Talks Mary McCaughey speaks with Eurofound Research Manager Tina Weber about new research on the right to disconnect, the evolution of the right to disconnect in Europe, the reasons why legislative and procedural actions are being called for, the impacts that effective
15 april 2024

Flexible work increases post-pandemic, but not for everyone

Even before the outbreak of COVID-19, various forms of flexible work, such as teleworking and flexitime, were in place across EU Member States. However, the pandemic led to a surge in flexible working practices with many workers wanting to focus on their work–life balance and have more time for

Working life in Moldova

Eurofound and the European Training Foundation have developed the first working life country profile for Moldova in recognition of its new status as an EU candidate country. The profile is intended to provide an overview of Moldova’s key socioeconomic characteristics and regulations to serve as a ba

Working life in Georgia

Eurofound and the European Training Foundation have developed the first working life country profile for Georgia, which is an EU candidate country. The profile is intended to provide an overview of Georgia’s key socioeconomic characteristics and regulations to serve as a background for its work t

Female teleworker taking notes during video conference on her laptop

Workers want to telework but long working hours, isolation and inadequate equipment must be tackled

The COVID-19 pandemic prompted a surge in telework, with dramatic increases in the number of employees working from home (teleworking) in many European countries. What for many employees started out as a mandatory move seems to have transformed into a preference among the majority for part-time or

Living, working and COVID-19: Impact on gender equality 11 March 2021, European Economic and Social Committee (EESC) virtual meeting Presentation by Maria Jepsen, Acting Executive Director, Eurofound

22 maart 2021

Labour market regulation, effectiveness of legal rights and obligations, and safety and health at work 9 March 2021 Presentation by Barbara Gerstenberger, Head of unit - Working life, Eurofound

9 maart 2021

Connecting and disconnecting and work-life balance 9 March 2021 Presentation by Tina Weber, Research manager - Employment unit, Eurofound

9 maart 2021

Blogs results (9)

The jury is still out on the question whether men and women are from distinct planets. When it comes to the world of work, however, they are worlds apart.

25 oktober 2023
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Europe Day is a celebration of unity, solidarity and harmony. While we may not have had much to celebrate this past year, one thing we can be proud of is how Europe has come together in the face of large-scale challenges and threats, showing that solidarity is the key to resilience and resolve.

8 mei 2023
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​​​​​​​To date, close to six million workers in the EU have lost their jobs due to COVID-19. Many businesses have closed their doors forever or been pushed to the brink, bringing severe financial and psychological hardship to the individuals and families affected. However, the toll of the pandemic

9 februari 2021
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The International Labour Organization (ILO) met for the first time 100 years ago, and right at the top of the agenda for discussion for this new specialised UN agency was the 8-hour working day. This discussion subsequently resulted in the Hours of Work (Industry) Convention, which stated that ‘The

12 november 2019
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Unemployment in the EU is continuing to fall, with the rate approaching its 2008 low point. This is good news: the Europe 2020 target of 75% employment in the working age population is now in sight for many Member States. However, as unemployment reaches new lows, the opposite problem is emerging –

19 november 2018
Rethinking working time in Europe

The results of recent research on working time patterns in the EU constitute a strong plea for working time policies that clearly acknowledge the life course perspective. This means that working time must not only be thought and organised in daily, weekly, monthly and/or yearly terms but also take

1 november 2017
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There are limits to the effectiveness of member states’ pension reforms. Europe, it’s often said, is experiencing a worsening ageing crisis. European governments grappling with this and the related unsustainability of many pension schemes have taken measures to keep older workers longer in

26 september 2016
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​Nowadays we all know that long or excessive working hours may have serious negative impacts on a person’s health and wellbeing. Eurofound‘s new report 'Working time developments in the 21st century' suggests that if working time standards are mainly left to legislation or to be set unilaterally by

4 maart 2016
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The latest research from Eurofound on working conditions in Europe highlights that the 9-to-5 day is not the norm for many workers, and work commonly spills over into home life. Such patterns make it difficult to balance work and life outside work.

25 november 2015
Data results (1)

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